


A MANUAL 



FOR THE 



County High Schools 



OF ALABAMA 



WITH 



RULES AND REGULATIONS 

COURSE OF STUDY AND 

LIST o/TEXT BOOKS 




ISSUED BY 

THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

MONTGOMERY. ALA. 



A MANUAL 



FOR THE 



County High Schools 
of Alabama 




^vv? 



ISSUED BY 

THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
MONTGOMERY, ALA. 



Montgomery, Alabama 
The Brown Printing Co., State Printers and Binders 

1910 



INTRODUCTION. 



TO THE TEACHERS OF THE COUNTY HIGH SCHOOLS 



This .Manual is issued by the Department of Education for 
the guidance of the County High School principals and teach- 
ers of Alabama. It is hoped also that other high school teach- 
ers will find it to be of real service to them in their work. The 
need for such a publication has been keenly felt for several 
years, and no doubt the sending forth of this little book will 
mark a step forward in securing that uniformity of educational 
practice which is so much to be desired in all the secondary 
schools of the state. 

The topics included in the Manual are the rules and regu- 
lations formulated by the High School Commission ; the pre- 
scribed course of study, together with the text-books to be 
used ; and specially prepared syllabi of the subjects embraced 
in the course of study. These syllabi were prepared by various 
professors in the University of Alabama and the Alabama 
Polytechnic Institute, to whom the Department of Education 
is under lasting obligations for this work gratuitously done 
for the state. 

The County High School principals and teachers should 
study the rules and regulations carefully and follow them 
closely. The course of study, which is slightly different from 
the one in force last year, must be strictly followed. Teachers 
are advised to make themselves familiar with the syllabi of 
the subjects they are to teach, and to plan definitely on paper 
their class work in every subject before the school opens in 
the autumn. Any letters asking for assistance in interpreting 
doubtful statements, directed to the Department, will receive 
prompt attention. 



*s 



No claim is made that the Manual is either complete or per- 
fect. It is the first attempt on the part of the Department to 
get out such a publication, and, doubtless, is lacking in many 
particulars. As the Manual will be revised from time to 
time, any criticisms or suggestions looking to its improvement 
will be gladly welcomed. 

All teachers are urged to supply themselves with some of 
the recent books bearing on their profession, and endeavor 
through close reading to widen the range of their professional 
knowledge. This is the day of educational advancement and 
the unprogressive teacher will soon be left behind. Principals 
are especially urged to organize teachers meetings for the pur- 
pose of studying through reading and discussion with their 
teachers some of the fundamental educational problems. The 
books suggested in the Manual are all helpful. Others will 
he recommended on application. 




Supt. of Education. 



RULES AND REGULATIONS. 



Adopted by the High School Commission for the Gov- 
ernment of the County High Schools of Alabama. 



1. The comity board of education shall nominate the teach- 
ers for the county high school and the nomination shall be 
sent to the High School Commission for approval. The 
board in sending in the nominations shall suggest the salary 
to be paid each teacher. 

2. The teachers of the county high school shall consist 
of a principal and two or more assistants, and every teacher 
must hold an Alabama First Grade or Life Certificate. 

3. The principal shall be employed for the whole year and 
his term of service shall begin July 1st and end June 30th of 
the following year, and he shall be paid by the calendar month. 
The assistant teachers shall be employed for nine months (36 
weeks) and shall be paid by the scholastic month. The salary 
of each assistant teacher shall begin when the regular session 
opens. 

4. The teachers shall keep an accurate record of the daily 
recitations and conduct of the pupils, and at the end of each 
term make a general report of each pupil to the principal, who 
shall place this report on a general record book which shall 
be well bound and kept for future reference. The principal 
shall keep a matriculation book in which shall be placed the 
names of the pupils as they matriculate, giving the full name, 
home address, age, and any other desired information. No 
pupil under thirteen years of age shall be allowed to matricu- 
late. 

5. It shall be the duty of the principal at the end of the 
ninth month to make a report on blanks furnished by the De- 
partment of Education. This report shall be made in duplicate, 



6 

one copy being sent to the county superintendent and the 
other to the Superintendent of Education at Montgomery. It 
shall also be the duty of the principal to make reports from 
time to time vyhen called for by the Department of Education. 

6. It shall be the duty of the principal and assistants in 
each county high school to follow faithfully the course of 
study prescribed by the Superintendent of Education, in ac- 
cordance with section 1866 of the Code. 

This course of study shall be a four year course and shall 
be based on an elementary course of seven grades or years . 

7. The county high school shall begin its annual session on 
such date as may be fixed by the county board of education. 

8. The session of the county high schools shall be nine 
scholastic months (thirty-six weeks). The session is divided 
into two terms of four and a half months each, and at the end 
of each term a general written examination shall be given to 
the pupils on the branches studied during the preceding term. 

9. The holder of an unexpired second grade certificate is- 
sued by the State Board of Examiners or a written statement 
from a teacher who holds a first grade certificate issued by the 
State Board of Examiners, stating that the holder has taken 
the elementary course of study as prescribed by the Depart- 
ment of Education in his or her school and has passed a satis- 
factory examination on these branches through the seventh 
grade, shall be entitled to entrance in the county high school 
without further examination. Every applicant who is not 
eligible to entrance without examination as stated in this rule 
shall be required to stand a satisfactory written entrance ex- 
amination on the branches included in the elementary course 
of seven years' work by the principal and teachers of the 
county high school. Each applicant shall be required to 
make not less than 50 per cent on each elementary branch and 
his general average shall be not less than 75 per cent. 

10. During the vacation period the principal shall canvass 
the county in the interest of the county high school, or per- 
form any other general school work that may be assigned to 
him by the High School Commission and county board. 



11. All teachers must attend the county and district insti- 
tutes and also the annual meeting of the Alabama Education 
Association. The time used in attending these meetings will 
be counted as time taught. 

12. A pupil living in any county may attend the county 
high school in another county without any additional charges 
for tuition, etc.. but every pupil in the county high school must 
present to the principal his receipt at the beginning of each 
term of the session showing that an incidental fee of $2.50 has 
been paid to the local treasurer of the high school which he 
is to attend. 

13. Every county high school must have a treasurer who 
shall reside in the place where the school is located. The 
treasurer shall be elected by the county board of education, 
subject to the approval of the High School Commission, for a 
term of three years and shall be required to make a bond 
of $3,000 in a reputable surety company; said bond must be 
approved by and filed in the office of the probate judge of the 
county in which the high school is located, and a certified copy 
of this bond must be filed in the office of the Department of 
Education at Montgomery. The treasurer shall keep in a well- 
bound book accurate accounts and shall make reports as to the 
financial condition of the high school whenever the county 
board and High School Commission require it. He shall keep 
an accurate account of receipts and disbursements of all 
moneys, stating from what source they came and how disburs- 
ed, giving receipts and taking proper vouchers. 

14. The principal of the school on the 20th day of each 
calendar month shall make a pay roll for the salaries of the 
teachers due, together with whatever accounts may have ac- 
crued against the school, and after approving it shall file the 
same with the county superintendent of education who shall 
examine it and after approving shall send the pay roll to the 
Superintendent of Education at Montgomery. After the pay 
roll has been approved by the Governor, the Superintendent of 
Education shall return it to the local treasurer of the county 
hieh school. The treasurer shall then issue a check to cover 



s 



each item on the pay roll and opposite each item he shall place 
the number of the check paying- such item. When checks are 
handed to the teachers they shall receipt the pay roll in the 
regular "signature column." All local bills must be receipt- 
ed for in the same manner when practicable. It shall be the 
duty of the treasurer to place and keep all canceled checks in 
the proper pay rolls when the checks are returned to him from 
the bank, which checks may serve as duplicate vouchers. 

15. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to pay all items 
with checks stating on the check the nature of the item paid. 
The treasurer shall pay out no funds for any item until the ac- 
count therefor has been regularly placed on the pay roll which 
must be made out and approved by the principal of the school,, 
the county superintendent of education for the county board, 
and by the Governor for the High School Commission. 

16. The Treasurer of the County High School shall, on 
the last day of each month, make to the Secretary of the High 
School Commission an itemized statement of all funds re- 
ceived by him during the month exclusive of the quarterly 
auditors warrant. 

17. The treasurer must make an annual report of the re- 
ceipts and disbursements at the close of the ninth scholastic 
month each year. One of these reports shall be filed with the 
county superintendent and the other with the Superintendent 
of Education at Montgomery. 

18. The treasurer shall be paid no salary, but the premium 
on his surety bond and any incidental expenses connected with 
his official duties must be paid from local supplement funds. 

19. It shall be the duty of the principal to attach to each 
monthly pay roll an itemized statement of any incidental ac- 
count to be paid. 

20. The quarterly state appropriation of $500 shall be made 
payable to the order of the high school treasurer and be drawn 
on January 1st, April 1st, July 1st, and October 1st of each 
year, and the requisition therefor must be signed by the county 
superintendent of education for the county board and by the 
Governor of the State for the High School Commission. It 
shall be the duty of the chief clerk in the Department of Ed- 



ucation to receipt the State Auditor for the warrant which 
shall be sent by said chief clerk to the high school treasurer. 

21. Examinations must be held at the close of each term 
of four and a half months by the high school teachers and at 
the close of the session a certificate shall be issued to each 
pupil who passes a satisfactory examination stating that such 
pupil has finished the work of a designated year and this cer- 
tificate shall entitle the pupil to enter upon the work of the year 
next after that so designated, in any county high school in the 
State. 

22. In order to pass a satisfactory examination on a partic- 
ular branch in the county high school it is necessary for the 
pupil to make an average of not less than 60 per cent on a 
branch in the first year's work, 65 per cent on a branch in the 
second year's work, 70 per cent on a branch in the third year's 
work, and 75 per cent on a branch in the fourth year's work. 
This average shall be secured by averaging the grade made on 
final examinations with the daily recitation grades given, the 
final examination counting one-third and the daily recitations 
two-thirds. All examination papers shall be held for reference 
until January 1st of the succeeding year. 

23. The county high school teachers shall hold teachers' 
meetings twice each month of the scholastic year at which the 
theory and practice of teaching the various high school branch- 
es shall be studied and discussed. 

24. The High School Commission shall appoint from time 
to time High School Inspectors, who shall visit the various 
county high schools of the State and after carefully inspecting 
them shall make a written report to the Secretary of the High 
School Commission. 

25. The principal and assistants of each county high school 
are hereby authorized to make such rules and regulations as 
they may deem necessary to successfully control and discipline 
the school, provided such rules and regulations shall in no way 
conflict with the rules and regulations made by the High 
School Commission. 



COURSE OF STUDY 



For the County High Schools of Alabama. 



(Based on elementary course of seven grades or years.) 

First Year. 

No. of recitation 
periods per week. 

ENGLISH. — Grammar reviewed, Rhetoric and composi- 
tion, and Classics 5 

MATHEMATICS— Arithmetic reviewed, (first half- 
year) ; Algebra (second half-year). 5 

HISTORY.— English History 3 

SCIENCE. — Physical Geography, (3 periods per week 
for first half-year, and 3 periods per week 
for second half-year until March when 

Agriculture is taken up) 3 

Agriculture, (3 periods per week during 
March, April and May) 

MANUAL TRAINING AND DRAWING— Geometric- 
al Drawing 2 

ELECTIVE.— (One of the following) 5 

LATIN.— Beginner's 5 

GERMAN. — Grammar and Composition, easy 

reading 5 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 5 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK. 

Required periods 23 



11 

Second Year. 

No. of recitation 

periods per week. 
ENGLISH. — Rhetoric and Composition, and Classics-- 5 
MATHEMATICS.— Algebra to Quadratics, (first half- 
year) ; Plane Geometry, (second 

half-year) 5 

HISTORY.— Ancient History to 800 A. D 3 

SCIENCE. — Biology, 3 periods per week during- entire 
year ; Agriculture, 1 period per week during 

entire year 4 

MANUAL TRAINING AND DRAWING— Mechanical 

/Drawing or Linear Drawing 2 

ELECTIVE.— (One of the following) 5 

LATIN. — Caesar, 4 books : or Viri Romae and 3 
books of Caesar ; Grammar and Prose 

Composition 5 

GERMAN. — Grammar and Composition, reading 

of intermediate texts 5 

COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC 5 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK. 



Required periods 24 

Third Year. 

ENGLISH. — History of English Literature, Composition 

and Classics 5 

MATHEMATICS.— Plane Geometry, (first half-year) ; 
advanced Algebra, (second half- 
year) 5 

HISTORY.— Mediaeval and Modern History 3 

ELECTIVE.— (Two of the following) 10 

LATIN. — Cicero, 6 orations ; or Cicero's Letters 
and 4 orations ; Grammar or Prose 

Composition 5 

FRENCH. — Grammar and Composition, reading 

of easy texts 5 



12 



GERMAN. — Same as in first year _ 5 

KOOKKEEPING 5 

PHYSICS AND AGRICULTURE— Physics 4 
periods per week, and Agriculture 2 periods 
per week during entire year 5 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK.' 



Required periods 23 

Fourth Year. 

ENGLISH. — American Literature, Composition and 

Classics, and Advanced Grammar 5 

MATHEMATICS.— Advanced Algebra, (first half- 
year) ; Solid Geometry or Arithme- 
tic, (second half-year) 5 

HISTORY.— V. S. History and Civics, Alabama History 4 

ELECTIVE.— (Two of the following) 10 

SCIENCE. — Chemistry and Agriculture, ( Chem- 
istry 5 periods per week during first 
half-year and 3 periods per week 
during second half-year ; Agricul- 
ture 2 periods per week during sec- 
ond half-year) 5 

LATIN.— Vergil, 6 books; or 1500 lines of Ovid's 

Metamorphoses and 4 books of Vergil 5 

FRENCH. — Grammar and Composition, reading 

of intermediate texts 5 

GERMAN. — Same as in second year 5 

BOOKKEEPING AND COMMERCIAL LAW 5 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK. 

Required periods 24 

Note: — 1. If a foreign language (Latin, French, or Ger- 
man) is elected, it must be pursued consecutively at least tzvo 
years. Standard colleges will give no credit for one-year 
courses in these languages. It is advisable that Latin, when 
once begun, be pursued during the entire four years. 



13 

Text-book work in Biology, Physics, and Chemistry must be 
supplemented by laboratory experiments performed by the 
pupils. Each pupil will be required to keep a record of his lab- 
oratory work in a note book and to submit it to the High 
School Inspectors for examination whenever called upon. 

School Garden Work is a part of the course in Agriculture. 

The length of the recitation period must be not less than 
forty minutes and not over forty-five minutes. 

A certificate indicating the units or subjects completed will 
be granted at the close of the first, second and third years. 
A diploma will be given upon the completion of the fourth 
year. 

The number of Elective Courses offered in each year will be 
determined by the teaching force. Schools having only three 
teachers cannot offer as many elective studies as schools in 
which four or more teachers are employed. 

A high school unit is defined as a subject which has been 
pursued successfully during a school year of thirty-six weeks, 
five recitation periods per week, the periods being not less than 
forty minutes in length. For instance, biology in the second 
year is counted as three-fifths of a unit. Two periods of lab- 
oratory work are equivalent to one recitation period in count- 
ing- units. 



14 



LIST OF TEXT BOOKS FOR COUNTY 
HIGH SCHOOLS. 



First Year. 



ENGLISH — Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in 

English Chas. E. Merrill Co. 

Brooks and Hubbard's Rhetoric and 

Composition American Book Co. 

Gateway Series of English Classics 

American Book Co. 

Other Classics (See pages 31-33 of Manual.) 
Southern School Book Depository, Atlanta, Ga.. 
ARITHMETIC— Colaw and Elwood's Advanced 

B. F. Johnson Pub. Co. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY— Maury-Symonds 

American Book Co. 

ALGEBRA— Collins' Practical Elementary Algebra 

American Book Co. 

LATIN — Pearson's Essentials American Book Co. 

HISTORY— Walker's Essentials in English History 

American Book Co. 

GEOMETRICAL DRAWING— Kitchners' Geomet- 
rical Note Book The MacMillan Co.. 

GERMAN — Joyne's Wesselhoeft's German Gram- 
mar D. C. Heath & Co. 

Wesselhoeft's German Composition 

D. C. Heath & Co. 

Huss' German Reader D. C. Heath & Co. 

AGRICULTURE— Duggar's Agriculture_The MacMillan Co. 



15 

Second Year. 

ENGLISH— Brooks and Hubbard's Rhetoric and 

Composition American Book Co. 

Gateway Series of English Classics 

American Book Co. 

Other Classics (See pages 31-33 of Manual.) 
Southern School Book Depository, Atlanta, Ga. 
ALGEBRA — Collins' Practical Elementary Algebra 

American Book Co. 

GEOMETRY— Wentworth's Plane and Solid Ginn & Co. 

HISTORY— Wolf son's Essentials in Ancient His- 
tory American Book Co. 

BIOLOGY— Bailey and Coleman's Biology 

The MacMillan Co. 

DRAWING — Davidson's Linear Drawing 

Hinds, Noble & Eldredge. 

BOTANY— Bergen's Botany Ginn & Co. 

LATIN — Harkness and Forbes Caesar__American Book Co. 
Pearson's Latin Composition, (Caesar) 

American Book Co. 

Harkness' Complete Latin Grammar 

American Book Co. 

Arrowsmith & Knapp's Selections from 

Yiri Romae American Book Co. 

GERMAN — Joyne's Wesselhoeft's German Gram- 
mar D. C. Heath & Co. 

Wesselhoeft's German Composition 

D. C. Heath & Co. 

Storm's Immensee, Heyse's L'Arrabiata 

1 D. C. Heath & Co. 

Der Schwiegersohn, Nicotiana 

D. C. Heath & Co. 

COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC— Moore's New 

Commercial American Book Co. 

AGRICULTURE— Duggar's Field Crops.The MacMillan Co. 



1(5 

Third Year. 

ENGLISH— Halleck's History of English Litera- 
ture American Book Co. 

Wooley's Handbook of English Com- 
position D. C. Heath & Co. 

Gateway Series of English Classics 

American Book Co. 

Other Classics (See pages 31-33 of Manual.) 
Southern School Book Depository. Atlanta, Ga. 
GEOMETRY— Wentworth's Geometry Ginn & Co. 

ALGEBRA— The Essentials of Algebra, ( Aley & 

Rothrock) Silver. Burdett & Co. 

PHYSICS— Higgin's Physics Ginn & Co. 

LATIN — Harper & Gallup's Cicero's Orations and 

Selections from the Letters- -American Book Co. 
Pearson's Latin Prose Composition ( Cic- 
ero) . American Book Co. 

FRENCH — Francois' Beginners' French- -American Book Co. 

Une Semaine a Paris American Book Co. 

Trois Contes Choisis American Book Co. 

HISTORY— Harding's Mediaeval and Modern 

History American Book Co. 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY— Redway's Com- 
mercial Geography Chas. Scribner's Sons. 

BOOKKEEPING— Office Methods and Practical 

Bookkeeping. Complete System Powers & Lyons. 

AGRICULTURE— Goff's Symposium of Horticul- 
ture — University Co-operative 
Co., Madison, Wis. 



17 

Fourth Year. 

ENGLISH — Simond's History of American Litera- 
ture Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

Whitney's Essentials of English Gram- 
mar Ginn & Co. 

Gateway Series of English Classics 

American Book Co. 

Other Classics (See pages 31-33 of Manual.) 
Southern School Book Depository, Atlanta. Ga. 
ALGEBRA— The Essentials of Algebra, (Aley & 

Rothrock) Silver, Burdett & Co. 

GEOMETRY— Went worth's Geometry Ginn & Co. 

ARITHMETIC— Sensenig and Anderson's Com- 
plete Arithmetic Silver, Burdett & Co. 

HISTORY — Hart's Essentials in American History 

American Book Co. 

CIVICS — James and Sanborn's Government in State 

and National Chas. Scribner's Sons. 

LATIN — Harper and Miller's Vergil American Book Co. 

Gleason's, A Term of Ovid American Book Co. 

COMMERCIAL LAW —White's Business Law 

Silver. Burdett & Co. 

FRENCH — Douay's French Reader Silver, Burdett & Co. 

Fasnacht's French Grammar_The MacMillan Co. 
L'Abbe Constantin, LaMare au Diable 

D. C. Heath & Co. 

BOOKKEEPING— Office Methods and Practical 

Bookkeeping, Complete System Powers & Lyons. 

CHEMISTRY— Smith's Essentials of Chemistry... 

Benj. H. Sanborn & Co. 

AGRICCLTURE — Snyder's Chemistry of Soils 

and Fertilizer The MacMillan Co. 



2 e 



ENGLISH. 



By PROFESSOR J. R. RUTLAND 



1. Aims. 

The teaching of English in schools has three distinct aims : 
correct speaking, correct writing, and good reading. The 
course must not only teach rules and facts, but fix habits of 
clear expression and of reading the best books. A literary 
and linguistic conscience, or good taste, is to be formed which 
will guide the boy and girl to a full, rounded, cultured man- 
hood and womanhood. The teacher should not only keep def- 
initely in mind these aims as they appear in various forms in 
every lesson of the year but also make subservient to his pur- 
pose all the changing fancies, flowering ambitions, overflowing 
emotions of the growing boy and girl. In a tactful and en- 
thusiastic way he should make every faculty of the child and 
every opportunity of the day pay tribute to his work. To teach 
children to express themselves clearly, correctly, and forcefully 
and to acquire a taste for good literature is not an easy task. 
It calls for patient planning, unremitting and often apparently 
unrewarded labor. Unfortunately, children's home and social 
environment have before the school years often fixed habits 
of incorrect speech and shut up their minds to the appeal of 
the beautiful, the good, and the true in language and litera- 
ture. To attain these high aims with such unformed material 
requires all that a teacher can command of love and knowledge 
of the work and of enthusiastic interest in children and in cul- 
ture. 

One of the ways of accomplishing this task is by a thorough 
study of grammar. Here there should be no lack of the old- 
fashioned grammatical drill, parsing, and analysis. Both 
pupils and teacher should see that grammar deals with thought 
as well as with forms and the recitation should never degen- 
erate into rote-work or parroting. Use in the sentence must 



19 

determine the class to which a word belongs. Correcting false 
syntax — especially the frequent mistakes of the pupils — con- 
stant reviews, practical and concrete teaching with examples 
or illustrations of principles, outside, independent work of 
the pupils, written tests in class, analysis of sentences in lit- 
erature, are some of the methods of making instruction in 
grammar more effective. The service of grammar to composi- 
tion and to the study of literature should be kept constantly 
fresh. 

In teaching composition, the only satisfactory method re- 
quires a great deal of writing during all of the four years 
of the high school course. A theme a week is a minimum. 
However, the teacher should never give more than he is able 
to read. During the first year, there should be very little crit- 
icism and not much formal study of the rules of rhetoric. 
These should be taken up in class orally and illustrated by 
pupils' themes, while the text is used merely as a guide. Every 
way of making writing a pleasure, of drawing out the pupils' 
ideas in the written sentence should be resorted to. Writing, 
if possible, should become as natural as speech, the quick 
retort or hearty congratulation. Before the more formal study 
of the principles and kinds of composition are taken up in the 
third and fourth years, the class should be able to write cor- 
rect sentences, with good spelling and punctuation, and to 
know the meaning of the paragraph. Care should always be 
taken in making assignments to be sure that the pupils under- 
stand what is desired. At first the teacher must outline almost 
all the pupils are expected to write. The teacher must, even 
to the point of baldness, put himself on the level of his pupils. 
Gradually he can lead them upward after he once vitally lays 
hold on them till he can depend on their own developed orig- 
inality. 

The reading of good books will furnish inspiration to this 
work. Frequent imitations are good. The first thing neces- 
sary in teaching literature to children is to inculcate a desire 
to read and a taste for it. In fact, the chief thing to do in the 
high school is to engage their interest and inspire them to 
read. Sometimes to accomplish this, teachers find it necessa- 



20 

ry to select other books than the "classics." After a liking 
for good books is formed, the more serious study of the con- 
tent, or meaning of words, sentences, paragraphs, and books, 
with some simple conceptions of form and structure of the 
various kinds of composition may be studied. The cultiva- 
tion of taste for the expressive, the lovely and the artistic, the 
arousal of the moral ideas inseparably connected with art, the 
exploration of human nature, emotions, thought, insight in 
books are aims in every course in literature. Very frequent- 
ly if the pupils are made to realize that literature reproduces 
real life, deals with true people and actual motives, their in- 
terest can be immediately aroused. The problem of the teach- 
er then is to sustain this interest and the taste for the good 
will come of itself, for this the teacher can deal with only in- 
directly by encouragement and co-operation. In this work, 
teachers should remember that the literature itself is to be 
taught. History of literature, facts about the author and his 
times are necessary but of secondary importance and interest 
to the child. The appreciation of the conception and the art 
of the writer should not be marred by a too minute study of 
words and phrases. "The letter killeth" very effectively if em- 
phasis is placed on it too early. If the high school teacher 
has taught his pupils to glean the thought of a piece, to appre- 
ciate and enjoy the creation of the writer, its humanity and its 
beauty of art, and has fixed the habit of reading good books, 
he has done his work well. 



21 



Arrangements of Periods for Each Week. 

Terms 

Years First Second 

Grammar 2 1 

First Composition 1 2 

Literature (Classics) 2 2 

Second Composition 3 3 

Literature (Classics) 2 2 

Composition 2 2 

Third English Literature 2 2 

Classics 1 1 

American Literature including 

Southern Literature 2 2 

Fourth Composition 2 1 

Classics 1 1 

Advanced Grammar (at the 

teacher's discretion) __ 1 



III. 
Grammar. 



The study of grammar in the first year of the high school 
must include a thorough study of the sentence form. A clear 
understanding of its parts (the subject, predicate, comple- 
ments, modifiers, connectives, and independent elements), and 
their relation to the rest of the sentence must be aimed at in 
the beginning. Special attention should be given to the com- 
plementary parts (direct object, objective and attribute com- 
plements, etc.), and to the predicate (verb phrases, auxiliaries, 



22 

showing mood and tense, etc.), and to various kinds of modi- 
fiers, (adjective, adverb, phrase, clause, etc). This last will 
require, of course, a study of the complex sentence and will 
lead to the classification of sentences according to form, ( sim- 
ple, compound and complex), and according to use (declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory). When the 
sentence form nas been sufficiently mastered and the pupils 
:an readily analyze it into its parts, defining the function of 
each, a more abstract study of the parts of speech should be 
taken up. Constant drills, varied by game devices perhaps, 
must be resorted to in order to classify the pupils' knowledge 
in as comprehensive a system as the maturity of their minds 
will allow ; but drills should not be carried to such excess 
that the pupils are not compelled to analyze. In the study of 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, close attention must be given 
to use, forms, classes, and modification. The pupils must get 
a clear idea of the meaning of number, person, case and gen- 
der in modern English. In the study of verbs, care should be 
taken that the forms are so well fixed in the pupils' minds 
that the teacher's call for the form of a certain verb in any 
tense, mood, and voice will get an immediate reply. The 
teacher should be sure that the uses of the passive voice, of 
the imperatives, of the participles, and verbal nouns are made 
clear. It will be found profitable to combine with this old- 
fashioned method of learning the rules, exercises by which the 
pupils are taught to recognize the forms, analyze the combi- 
nations, and explain the agreements and uses of the verb. Oral 
parsing, review of the conjugations, critical analysis and defini- 
tion of forms and uses should be constantly resorted to. When 
the study of adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives, ex- 
pletives, phrases, and clauses has been completed, a review of 
the more difficult points should be attempted by way of a gen- 
eral review that should organize the pupil's grammatical in- 
formation. 

During the second term of the fourth year, one hour a week 
may be devoted to a review of grammar. The outline to be 
followed will be practically the same as in the first year ; but 
of course the manner of treatment will be more theoretical. 



23 

Besides the mere organization and expansion of the pupils' 
grammatical knowledge, the study will afford considerable 
training in analysis and argument. For students going to 
college, this study should be a good basis for further progress 
in word-study and philology ; for the student going to work, it 
should correct and elevate his linguistic conscience. The el- 
ementary study of words, their roots, inflection, derivation and 
composition, with which the pupils should have been made 
familiar, incidentally in connection with the study of literature, 
can now be pursued with interest and with profit. It should 
be remembered that the pupils will have little need of princi- 
ples of grammar which are not extremely practical for their 
guidance in spoken and written English. 



IV. 



Composition. 

During the first two years the principles of composition as 
related to the sentence and the paragraph should be taught 
orally and through the theme work. The children can do lit- 
tle by themselves with the text. Constant practice in sentence 
making, paragraph building, simple outlining, is absolutely 
necessary and this the teacher must explain and illustrate in 
class over and over before the pupils are required to do entire- 
ly independent work. While narrative and descriptive writ- 
ing will predominate during the first two years, simple argu- 
ment and exposition should not be neglected. Simple explana- 
tions and definitions, giving reasons for belief or action, telling 
how to make things, will offer many opportunities for these 
forms. Oral recitation, where the pupil proceeds from point 
to point without help, is good drill in following an outline. Un- 
pretentious attempts at story telling, reproduction of stories 
and descriptions, read in or out of class, comments and discus- 
sions of all kinds that naturally grow out of the study of liter- 
ature and out of the general reading of the pupils, oral or writ- 
ten exploitations of the pupils' general knowledge and personal 



24 

experience should be skillfully encouraged by the teacher. Let- 
ter writing, because of its intimate personal nature, because it 
requires correctness and neatness of form, and because it may 
be adapted to any form of composition, should be frequently 
used. 

In the third and fourth years sentence, and paragraph, and 
outline making ; unity, coherence and emphasis ; point of view, 
kinds of composition and other facts and principles should be 
taken up more formally with the book. Theme work in expo- 
sition and argument, though by no means excluding narrative 
and description, should consume the larger part of the time. 
Longer themes and more difficult topics are in order. As far 
as possible all composition work should grow naturally out of 
the school work and life, out of interest in the business life to 
come, and out of the personal experience of the children. More 
pretentious imitations in verse or prose ; another chapter of 
Robinson Crusoe or Gulliver's Travels, rhyming witticisms, 
scenes of drama, and like exercises ought to be attempted. As 
far as possible, the pupils should be taught to skirmish about 
in literature for themselves for suggestions as to the form 
which they will give to their own ideas. Independence and 
self-confidence, as well as the faculty of self-criticism, should 
be cultivated tactfully from the beginning. It can not be em- 
phasized too much that the teacher must explain by precept 
and example every process he requires his pupils to go through 
with. Criticisms should always be sympathetic and pupils 
should generally make their own corrections. Above all. the 
teacher must help the pupil in innumerable ways to enrich his 
thought and feeling by observing and reading, so that he will 
have something to write. He will then want to write. 

Conferences. 

As much time as possible should be given to individual con- 
ferences on the written work of the pupils. The suggestions 
and criticisms in class and the comments written on the pupils' 
themes can not take the place of the personal interview in 
which pupil and teacher can be perfectly frank. 



25 

V. 

Literature. 

In the first years of the high school the main purpose in 
the reading of a poem or story or speech is to get an apprecia- 
tive response from every child in the class. Of course the class 
must learn something about the life of the author, his place in 
history, the structure of the piece and the allusions, but in the 
first year these things, which should come chiefly from the 
teacher, are of minor importance in comparison with the main 
purpose and charm of the masterpiece. Outside reading, easy 
and attractive to young people, whether "classic" or not. will 
help stimulate a love for the best books. The attitude of the 
teacher should always be that of an enthusiastic reader, and 
by no means that of a task-master. Striking phrases and lines 
should be memorized from day to clay by both teacher and 
pupil. In the second year closer attention should be given to 
both content and form. Minute familiarity with the incidents 
and characters of a story or with the points of an essay should 
be insisted upon. The study of the meanings of words, allu- 
sions, figures, meaning of whole piece, qualities of style, and 
personality of the writer should not be made too exacting or 
severe. The relation of literature to life is always engaging. 
In every masterpiece studied, the human interest, the ideas, ac- 
tivities, emotions found there, which should be realized and 
understood as natural and desirable or undesirable in actual 
life, are of considerably more importance to the second year 
pupil than its form or structure. The interpretation of the 
writer's feeling, as well as thought, by means of the voice, 
should get a great deal of emphasis in all of the four years. 

The third year marks a significant change of plan with re- 
gard to literature. The work in the second and first years 
has been mainly with those classics which the committee on 
college entrance requirements in English have called "books 
for reading." Now in addition to these, it is advisable to take 
up those which are assigned "for study" and also to pursue 
with the aid of a special text, in a more or less chronological 



26 

order the study of the chief writers of England. In a con- 
secutive study of Englishmen of letters, the teacher should 
select from the whole list those who are best, those who are 
most significant representatives of their respective periods, and 
whose writings have a special appeal to boys and girls of the 
high school age. The following are suggested : Chaucer, 
Raleigh, Spenser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, Bunyan, Dry- 
den, Defoe, Swift. Addison, Pope, Johnson, Goldsmith, Burke, 
Burns, Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Lamb, De Quincey, By- 
ron, Shelley, Keats, Macaulay, Dickens, Thackeray, Carlyle, 
George Elliot, Ruskin, Arnold, Tennyson, and Browning. A 
text-book of selections of English poems should be used in con- 
nection with a history of literature. The various series of 
classics may be drawn upon for the prose. It is most inadvis- 
able to study a history of literature without using in class se- 
lections from the great writers, and the emphasis should be laid 
on the masterpieces, not on the history. 

However, besides the more outstanding facts about literature 
and great writers which children ought to know, they should 
learn something definite about the forces at work in each 
period, which expressed themselves in certain forms and kinds 
of writing. Some idea of the progress or changing values of 
thought must be obtained. Ward's "English Poets" and Pal- 
grave's "Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics" (which is in- 
cluded with classics for college entrance) will be especially 
helpful in this study. If the pupils are not already accustomed 
to the use of notebooks, the practice should now be begun. In 
them should be kept not only the meanings of unusual words, 
allusions or special notes of any kind on the text of the classics 
studied, but also facts about the author's life and about the 
period in which he lived, a list of his other works, and such of 
his characteristics as the pupils have found indicated in his 
poem or book. To see that these books are neatly and intelli- 
gently kept, the teacher ought to examine them at least once a 
month. In the intensive study that is expected of third year 
pupils, who in the other years have step by step been led to 
see some of the beauties and understand some of the values of 
literature, the pupils must know how to read carefully and in- 



27 

telligently, to get the thought. Both the mental development 
of the pupil and the demands of the course will require greater 
application and more difficult masterpieces. Hard words and 
difficult allusions will be more frequent. Greater attention 
must be given to the form and its relation to the message and 
purpose of the writer. Some attention has already been given 
to the more obvious facts of poetical and dramatic technique. 
This should be continued, always with regard for the immatu- 
rity of the students, and something of the structure of the story, 
novel, oration, and essay may be added incidentally with the 
study of the pieces. 

For close reading and study are provided by the committee 
on uniform entrance requirements in English a play, group of 
poems, an oration, and an essay, which are to be selected from 
the following: Shakespeare's "Macbeth," Milton's "L'Alle- 
gro," "II Penseroso," and "Comus," Burke's "Speech on Con- 
ciliation with America," or Washington's "Farewell Address." 
and Webster's "First Bunker Hill Oration" and Macaulay's 
"Life of Johnson," or Carlyle's "Essay on Burns." Two of 
these should be studied during the third year and two during 
the fourth. In this part of the work emphasis must be placed 
upon "the content, form and structure, and upon the meaning 
of such words, phrases, and allusions as may be necessary to 
an understanding of the works and an appreciation of their 
salient qualities of style." However, this minute study should 
not be carried on in such a matter-of-fact way as to make it 
distasteful to the pupils. The main object is appreciation. 

In the field of American literature, which is to be studied in 
the fourth year, it is well for the teacher to determine, as he 
did for the English writers, upon a representative list of Amer- 
ican literary masters, and base the class work entirely upon 
them. Franklin, Irving, Cooper, Bryant, Poe, Emerson, Haw- 
thorne, Thoreau, Whittier, Longfellow, Holmes, Whitman. 
Lowell should be included. To these may be added Hayne, 
Timrod, Lanier, Ryan, and a few other Southern writers. A 
good collection of American poetry and a text of Southern poe- 
try will be necessary. For the prose, the teacher will find near- 
ly all he needs in the various series of classics. This should be 



28 

definitely planned at the beginning of the year so that the pupils 
may provide themselves in time with the proper texts. A sim- 
ple text on the history of American literature must be used. 
While a knowledge of the author and his life is of value in in- 
terpreting his poems, essays, or stories, it is quite as necessary 
to study his personality and his opinions through his literary 
products. In the same way an acquaintance with the period in 
which the writer lived is excellent preparation for studying 
his works ; it is also true that the works themselves will re- 
flect a great interest on the time which produced them. But in 
this study, the poem and the poet, the essay and the essayist, 
the story and the novelist, the thought and the personality, the 
beauty and the creator, are more significant than the times 
which brought them forth. The order of importance is usually 
the poem, the poet, and lastly the age. The history is a setting 
for the poet and the poem, which relates them to their past, 
present and future ; and, therefore, is of secondary interest to 
the high school teacher of English. This year the maturity of 
the students' mental powers and the training of the previous 
session should allow of a more exacting, accurate, critical study 
of the form, structure, style, and content. They should be con- 
scious of an increasing ability to read carefully, intelligently, 
and appreciatively. They should practice analyzing and out- 
lining the thought expressed, pointing out qualities characteris- 
tic of the author and the times, and stating in definite terms ap- 
preciation of the author and of his style. 

Those classics to be studied closely should be subjected to 
the same careful application. Possibly Milton's "L'Allegro," 
"II Penseroso," and "Comus," and Burke's "Conciliation with 
America" have been reserved for this year. Special attention 
will be given among other things, to words, allusions, qualities 
of style, principles of composition illustrated, poetic forms, and 
structure of argument. During both the third and fourth 
years the appreciative study, with less vigorous application, of 
other classics should, for the sake of variety, be combined with 
this more exacting work. This class work and the recommend- 
ed outside reading should include in the four high school 
years practically all those classics listed as "College Entrance 



29 

Requirements in English." While the amount of reading ex- 
pected of the pupils will necessarily be left to the teacher's dis- 
cretion, his judgment must be guided not only by the require- 
ments of the course, but also by the needs of the growing boys 
and girls. He must be quick to discern personal preferences 
and patient in directing them. 



VI. 

Useful Books for the Teacher and Pupils. 

(a) Teaching of English. 

Chubb: The Teaching of English. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany. ) 

Bates: Talks on the Study of Literature. (Houghton, 
Mifflin Company.) 

Bates: Talks on writing English (Houghton, Mifflin Com- 
pany.) 

Heydrick : How to Study Literature. (Hinds and Noble.) 

McMurry : Special Method in the Reading of English Clas- 
sics. (Macmillan.) 

Carpenter, Baker and Scott : The Teaching of English. 
(Longmans.) 

Woodward: English in the Schools. (Heath.) 

Blakely : Teachers' Outlines for Studies in English. 
(American Book Co.) 

Palmer: Self-cultivation in English. (Crowell.) 

(b) Composition and Rhetoric. 

Wendell: English Composition. (Scribner.) 
Gardner: The Forms of Prose Literature. (Scribner.) 
Webster: Composition. (Heath.) 

Brooks and Hubbard: Rhetoric and Composition. (Amer- 
ican Book Co.) 



30 

Lockwood and Emerson : Rhetoric and Composition for 
Higher Schools. (Ginn & Co.) 

Baker and Huntingdon : Principles of Argumentation. 
(Ginn. ) 

Gardner, Kittredge, and Arnold : Composition and Rheto- 
ric. (Ginn.) 

Thomas: Manual of Debate. (American Book Co.) 

(c) Grammar and Language Study. 

Trench: Study of Words. (Armstrong.) 

Greenough and Kittredge : Words and Their Ways in En- 
glish Speech. (Macmillan.) 

Emerson : Brief History of the English Language. ( Mac- 
millan. ) 

Sweet : New English Grammar Logical and Historical. 
(Clarendon Press.) 

(d) Literature. 

1. Ward: English Poets, 4 volumes, (Macmillan.) 

1. Craik : English Prose, 5 volumes. (Macmillan.) 

1. Manly: English Poetry. (Ginn.) 

1. Page: Poets of the Nineteenth Century. (Sanborn.) 

1. Page: Chief American Poets. (Houghton, Mifflin and 
Co.) 

1. Stedman : American Anthology. 

1. Painter: Poets of the South. (American Book Co.) 

1. Webber: Southern Poets. (Macmillan.) 

1. Syle : From Milton to Tennyson. (Allyn and Bacon.) 

1. Pancoast: Selected English Poems. (Holt.) 

2. Henchman and Gunmere : Lives of Great English Writ- 
ers. (Houghton, Mifflin.) 

2. Halleck : History of English Literature. (American 
Book Co.) 

2. Brooks : English Literature to the Norman Conquest. 
( Macmillan.) 



31 

2. Schofield : English Literature from the Norman Con- 
quest to Chaucer. (Macmillan.) 

2. Saintsbury : History of Elizabethan Literature. (Mac- 
millan.) 

2. Gosse : Eighteenth Century Literature. (Macmillan.) 

2. Saintsbury: History of Nineteenth Century Literature. 
(Macmillan.) 

2. Taine: History of English Literature. 

3. Wendell and Greenough : The History of Literature in 
America. 

3. Bronson: History of American Literature. (Heath.) 
3. Simond : History of American Literature. (Houghton 
Mifflin & Co.) 

3. Noble: History of American Literature. (Macmillan.) 

4. Ryland : Chronological Outlines of English Literature. 
( Macmillan. ) 

5. Gayley : Classic Myths in English Literature. (Ginn.) 
5. Fairbanks: The Mythology of Greece and Rome. (Ap- 

pleton. ) 



VII. 



CLASSICS. 

The classics named here are those listed as college entrance 
requirements. They are arranged in four groups which may be 
used consecutively during the four high school years. It seems 
none too much to expect a high school teacher to acquaint his 
pupils with all these or the equivalent by means of class work 
on those "for reading" and "for close study" and by means of 
outside reading. It is not hard to see how a good teacher 
could considerably increase the number. Not less than four 
a year selected from prescribed group must be taken by each 
class. Care should be taken to see that the edition of classics 
used is well edited. It is hoped that the teacher will supple- 
ment this list with many other good books. 



32 



First Year. 

Franklin's, Autobiography. 

Defoe's, Robinson Crusoe. 

Longfellow's, Miles Standish. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 

Stevenson's, Treasure Island. 

Shakespeare's, Merchant of Venice. 

Irving's, Rip Van Winkle and other Sketches. 

Palgrave's, Golden Treasury (selections). 

Whittier's, Snow Bound. 

Scott's, Lady of the Lake. 

Bible— Old Testament Stories. 

Second Year. 

Homer — Stories from Iliad and Odyssey. 
Addison — Sir Roger de Coverley Papers. 
Palgrave's, Golden Treasury (selections). 
Scott's, Ivanhoe. 
Scott's, Quentin Durward. 
Goldsmith's Deserted Village. 
Stevenson's, Inland Voyage. 
Stevenson's, Travels with a Donkey. 
Coleridge's, Ancient Mariner. 
Macaulay's, Lays of Ancient Rome. 
Arnold's, Sohrab and Rustum. 
Virgil's, Aeneid. 
Hawthorne's, House of Seven Gables. 

Third Year. 

Poe's, Raven. 

Lowell's, Vision of Sir Launfal. 
Palgrave's, Golden Treasury (selections). 
Shakespeare's, As you Like It. 
Washington's, Farewell Address. 
Webster's, Bunker Hill Oration. 



33 



Macanlay's, Life of Johnson. 

Gray's, Elegy in a Country Churchyard. 

Shakespeare's, Julius Caesar. 

Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. 

Dickens', David Copperfield. 

Dickens', Tale of Two Cities. 

Mrs. Gaskell's, Cranford. 

Macauley's, Essay on Clive. 

Macauley's, Essay on Warren Hastings. 

Lincoln's, Speeches (selections). 

Fourth Year. 

Parkman's, Oregon Trail. 

Thoreau's, Walden. 

Huxley's, Autobiography and selections from__ 

Browning's, Poems (selected). 

Tennyson's, Idylls of the King. 

Byron's Childe Harold, Canto IV. 

Byron's, The prisoner of Chillon. 

Palgrave's, Golden Treasury (selections). 

Milton's, L'Allegro, II Penseroso, and Comus. 

Carlyle's, Essay on Burns. 

Burke's, Speech on Conciliation with America. 

Shakespeare's, Macbeth. 

Shakespeare's, Twelfth Night. 

Shakespeare's, Henry the Fifth. 

Eliot's, Silas Marner. 

Thackeray's, Henry Esmond. 

Thackeray's, English Humorists. 



3 E 



34 



HISTORY 



By DR. GEORGE PETRIE. 



I believe that we teachers of history meet with more to 
perplex us than do any other members of our profession. I 
do not refer to any lack of encouragement either by the school 
authorities or by the public at large. Both are helping us 
greatly. Nor can I here discuss those difficulties that so often 
come from the teacher's own inadequate knowledge of the sub- 
ject — a weakness which we all feel in proportion to our candor. 
I refer solely to classroom troubles, to what are sometimes 
called pedagogical troubles, to what the business man would 
call transportation troubles — troubles in transporting what his- 
torical goods we have from the source of supply into the pupil. 

How familiar is the old complaint, "I have been over this 
lesson three times, and i can't learn it." And then comes the 
desperate summing up of the whole matter, "I never did like 
history anyhow : can't I drop it ?" Every honest teacher re- 
calls his own experience as a student, the bewildering names, 
the multitudinous dates, the terrible remoteness of the whole 
business. A country boy in a large city is more at home than 
a beginner in his first ten pages of real history. He does not 
know what to do with it, and often we teachers are scarcely 
less helpless. Latin prose, he understands, is to be translated 
so as to make sense, and mathematical problems are to be work- 
ed so as to get the answer, but what is to be done with the 
history lesson ? 

The Three Foundation Stones. 

1. Definitcncss. — First of all, it seems to me, the teacher 
should make clear just what is required in the preparation of 
the lesson assigned. The pupil can not commit ten pages to 
memory, even if it were desirable for him to do so ; nor can 
he in his ignorance guess what an experienced teacher will 



35 

regard as important. Of course it is not an easy matter for 
the teacher to select the important things. Experts do not al- 
ways agree in their judgment about them. A wise choice will 
depend largely on the training, the scholarship, and the native 
sense of the teacher. With these I am not at present concern- 
ed. What I do insist on is that the pupil should know in ad- 
vance with some definiteness what his own teacher considers 
important in the lesson he has to prepare. 

I have myself found it helpful sometimes to give in advance 
questions on the lesson. These may be dictated to the class, 
or they may be mimeographed cheaply, or, if the class be small, 
a few carbon pencil-written or type-written copies may be put 
where the pupils can consult them. The preparation of these 
will soon become interesting, and the old style, lazy question, 
"W r hat does the book say about Xerxes?" will give place to 
some helpful, thought-provoking question that sends the read- 
er back to the book with a definite thing to look for. Indeed, 
the class may in time be trained to make its own questions, first 
upon a given page or paragraph and later upon an entire lesson. 
Competition may be encouraged by selecting for class use the 
best questions on each page. The discussion as to which are 
the best will give life to the work and will encourage independ- 
ence of thought. I have found it a good plan also to include 
questions that involve a comparison with what has gone be- 
fore, for example to ask for the difference between the reforms 
brought about by the Roman Decemvirs and those made by the 
Greek, Solon. This kills two birds with one stone : it clinches 
the old while it fastens the new. 

When questions can not be given, the teacher can at least 
go over the lesson in advance with the class, pointing out the 
things to be remembered in each paragraph, and making the 
pupils check them on the margin ; the leading names and dates 
can be underscored, and the strange names pronounced re- 
peatedly so as to fasten them in the memory by the ear as well 
as by the eye. 

2. Thoroughness. — The second foundation stone upon 
which good teaching rests is thoroughness. After the teacher 
determines and explains just what is expected of the class, he 
should see to it that this is done and is done thoroughly. This 



30 

•does not mean necessarily that the strong arm of discipline must 
be invoked ; but it does mean drill, drill, drill — an exercise that 
is too often neglected by us modern teachers, but which is as 
necessary in order to keep up the morale of the class as it for 
a maintenance of the efficiency of a military company. Noth- 
ing discourages a pupil more than to find that what was work- 
ed out with care and labor yesterday is gone today ; nothing 
encourages him 'more than to find that what is once done re- 
mains a permanent acquisition and that there is a steadily 
growing bank account. Drilling is not only useful, it is a live- 
ly and amusing exercise under the guidance of a teacher who 
knows well what he is drilling on, so that there is no hesita- 
tion, or referring to the book for facts. Every teacher can 
work out his own devices to facilitate the process. I will sug- 
gest one or two. 

Lists of men and places may be written in a large and clear 
hand and hung on the wall, where they can be easily seen. 
Every day these can be run over, some pointed question being 
asked about each. The same plan can be used for important 
dates. As the class becomes more familiar with men and 
events, it becomes an interesting exercise to connect two men or 
events by some intermediate link, as for example Sulla and 
Cicero through Pompey, or the history of Gaul with that of 
Rome through Caesar. Sometimes it proves useful to assign 
a brief topic for review along with the new lesson, especially 
if it be short and simple. After the main points have been 
brought out by the daily lessons, many minor ones can be 
taken up one by one in the brief reviews. These may be as- 
signed one or two at a time as search questions to be hunted 
up in the textbook during ten minutes of the recitation period. 
The change of occupation and the fascination of the chase will 
often steady a restless class. 

3. Variety. — The third point that I insist on is variety. 
These three things, definiteness, thoroughness, and variety are 
the three foundation stones upon which good teaching of his- 
tory in our high schools must rest. Of these variety is the one 
which is most likely to be neglected by an earnest teacher. He 
should remember that water dropping steadily in one place 



37 

wear away a stone, and that monotonous teaching will in time 
destroy the power of attention of even the most thoroughly 
disciplined class. Young people especially find it hard to keep 
either the mind or the body long in one attitude. Restless feet 
often indicate that the mind too needs a change of position. 
Skillful teaching is like good conversation ; it shifts the topic, 
the method, the manner, as signs of weariness or of waning 
interest appear. The object is not, as in the art of war, to 
keep the attack steadily on the weak point in the opponent's 
line ; on the contrary, the chief purpose should be to avoid the 
weary spots and to call out constantly some new and fresh 
faculty while the others recuperate. In this art all of us fall 
short of what is desirable ; but we can improve by practice, as 
a hostess improves in the art of directing a dinner party so 
that each person contributes the best that he has, yet none is 
wearied. No systematic directions can be given, but a few 
suggestions may be helpful. 

The first one is a caution based on my own bitter experience 
first as a pupil and later as a teacher. It is this : Do not talk 
a class to sleep or into open rebellion. There are very few 
men or women who can talk as interestingly to others as to 
themselves. This is partly because of human vanity, and part- 
ly because the thought that we have in mind is usually so much 
better than the clumsy way in which we express it. We, the 
talkers, get the former, and enjoy it ; the class gets the latter, 
and is bored. Especially in high school work there is little 
need for anything like formal lecturing. Yet it is a notable 
fact that teachers easily drop into a habit of high pitched, con- 
tinuous talking that either sets the class by the ears or puts 
it to sleep. In no subject should teaching thus become a pro- 
cess of hammering; in history least of all. Because of its 
naturally complex character, it is no more to be treated in that 
way than is a spider's web or a fine piece of machinery. The 
history teacher might well take a lesson from the mother bird, 
who, when she has food for the young one, encourages him 
to do the talking. It opens him up for the food. The business 
of the teacher is to draw out the pupil, rather than to thrust 
in the facts ; to find out and to explain his difficulties, rather 



38 

than to dwell monotonously on the obvious. No pupil is bored 
while his own trouble is being explained, and half of the bat- 
tle in teaching history lies in finding out what the pupil's dif- 
ficulties are, for often he himself scarcely knows. Success in 
this depends, not on lecturing at him, but on studying his case. 

"But," some one will say, "how can you study the individual 
needs when the classes are so large?" In reply I would say 
that I have no remedy to offer for large classes. They are 
the pride and the bane of the teacher's existence. But in my 
own case I find that the evil can be ameliorated by personal 
conferences with small groups outside the classroom. I have 
found this especially helpful with the backward members. It 
encourages and stimulates them, and it helps me to get a bet- 
ter idea of their need and to adapt my classroom work to them. 
As soon as they find that the purpose of the conference is not 
to blame them, but to help them, they state their historical 
troubles with a freedom that almost swamps one. I think that 
getting at the difficulties of the pupils is the most important 
part of our work, as diagnosis is, in that of the physician. Of 
course no teacher can appeal to the individual wants of every 
pupil all the time ; but this very fact gives him additional rea- 
son for varying the program during the hour. Not only do 
they all collectively get a refreshing change of mental attitude, 
but each one is more likely to find something that appeals es- 
pecially to him. 

It is well for the teacher to experiment in making out a 
program for the hour. Something like the following might be 
tried : 

Review the wall list of names. 

Mark important things in the lesson for next time. 

Dictate a dozen questions on it that require some search, but 
are not too vague. 

Review the wall list of dates. 

Question on the most important things in the lesson for the 
day. 

Ask for and propose difficulties. 

Explain these briefly and clearly. 

Give five minutes for the review of some topic. 

Question about it. 



39 

This list is, of course, only a suggestion. It will be too long 
if the teacher is slow or the period is short. It may be varied 
greatly from time to time ; but for any particular day the teach- 
er should know just what he is going to do. A little experience 
will indicate what items are most effective for each teacher 
and for each class, and what order gives the best results. These 
may seem to be small things, but success in teaching, as in 
other arts, depends on attention to details. 

These are in my opinion the fundamental requisites for all 
good teaching of history. When a teacher has mastered these, 
he can turn his attention to the higher side of his art ; and 
this brings me to the consideration of 

Inspiration in the Classroom. 

We all agree that good teaching should be inspiring, and 
any student is to be pitied who has not at some time in his life 
come in contact with a teacher who was to him a great inspi- 
ration. Such men are born, not made. But after all, this in- 
spiring influence is a thing that exists in many different de- 
grees, and many of us who are not destined to become great 
teachers of history in the sense that Herbert B. Adams was, 
can nevertheless with care and labor do far more than we 
think possible to stir in the young some enthusiasm for a study 
whose fascination we have felt. Indeed it is encouraging to 
reflect that this fascination lies in the subject after all and only 
indirectly in the teacher, and that to a bright pupil the charm of 
a great subject appeals almost of itself. The point for us is 
not that we should ourselves be charming while we teach 
history, but that we should in as many ways as possible give the 
pupil an opportunity to come into contact with the natural at- 
tractiveness of the subject — or perhaps I should say with its 
attractions, for they are many, and some appeal to one, some to 
another. These are the windows of the classroom prison. The 
shutters are sometimes hard to open and the glass dusty ; but 
occasionally a stirring vision may be discerned through them, 
and an inspiration caught that leads out into the great world 
of real history. 



40 

1. The First Window; Chronology : I am sure that the 
reader will be surprised when I mention as the first window a 
line of historical study that is usually considered the most des- 
perately uninteresting of all, the study of dates. What could 
be drier than dates? Have we not always applauded the his- 
toric as well as historical pun that speaks of them as the pro- 
duct of the desert ? True ; but is the study of tuberculosis less 
interesting because the disease itself is unpleasant? What if 
the study of dates should lead to the discovery of a remedy 
for dates, or at least of something that makes them less viru- 
lent and the attack less frequent? Not only is such a remedy 
possible ; it has actually been found, and has long been in use 
everywhere except in the schoolroom. Ask a farmer the date 
of a famous storm. He may give you an offhand numerical 
answer, which probably will not agree with the reply given by 
his neighbor ; but usually he will deliberate a moment and then 
speak somewhat as follows : "That was when my son John 
was a baby, because he and Sally were caught out in it and 
were nearly killed ; and John voted for the first time last Fall. 
It must have been about twenty years ago. Yes, you can 
count on it ; it was about twenty years ago." And the beauty 
of that plan for getting at dates is that you can count on it. 
It may not get the date precisely, but it can not miss it far. 
And what a real sense of time it gives. The period 1890-1910 
suggests nothing but a mathematical facts, so dry that it is 
not inaptly compared to a desert ; but think of it as covering 
the entire time during which a young man is growing from 
babyhood to manhood, and the whole desert is vivified with his 
life. 

That may be a homely illustration, but the principle be- 
hid it is a general and far-reaching one. It is that chronol- 
ogy after all is not a mathematical science, but a study in the 
relation of events to one another. The dates are useful merely 
to hold the facts until we can grasp their connection, as the 
splints on a broken arm are there simply to hold the bones un- 
til they grow together. For example, the beginner notes that 
the date of the Hartford Convention is 1814; but after he has 
learned to think of it in its proper relation to the War of 1812, 



41 

the mathematical tag drops from it and it becomes in his mind, 
as it was in reality, one of the closing incidents of that war. 
Its time is thus fastened. Again, John Brown's Raid is at 
first an isolated incident held in place only by the bare date 
1859. But the least familiarity with the events before and af- 
ter it soon fixes it in the mind as one of the things that led at 
once to the great war, and its date is unforgetable. 

So in the study of any period the beginner starts with a few 
leading dates, and gradually groups incidents around them. 
Finally, as the facts assume an orderly position, even those 
dates become unnecessary, the series becomes self sustaining, 
and the distance of any event from any other can easily be 
measured in the mind's eye. Indeed this sense of time-dis- 
tance is one of the accomplishments that a good historian must 
cultivate. Without it his sense of proportion will be false, and 
his judgment of the significance of facts will be unreliable. 
From this standpoint chronology, or the study of dates, is not 
a matter of mere memory, but of the highest judgment and of 
the keenest analysis, because it is concerned not with idle 
figures, but with the connection of events, their proportion, 
and their significance. It leads not to a multitudinous diversity 
of disconnected dates, but to a general and reasonable grasp of 
the whole. 

2. The Second Window: Geography: It will not surprise 
anyone to hear that the second window is the study of geogra- 
phy. The growth of a nation like Rome or England is largely 
a jumble of words unless it be traced on the map. This is 
now well understood, and the fact is neglected in teaching not 
so much from ignorance as from sheer laziness. If any teacher 
doubts the fascination of maps, let him hang a good one in an 
accessible spot. He will be suprised to see how the boys study 
it. They find their homes on it if possible, and then push on 
with their fingers through the half known regions nearby to 
the alluring world beyond. With many a boy a good map has 
been the beginning of a larger life. 

But the mere acquisition of geographical knowledge should 
not be the chief purpose in the study of geography. The 
bright student can soon be led to interpret its effect on history, 
and then begins the fascination — I might say the dangerous 



42 

fascination — of the study. He discovers that it is not an acci- 
dent that England has a great navy, or that Switzerland is an 
independent republic with a federal government, or that Egypt 
was a monarchy. He begins to realize the historical signifi- 
cance of the Suez canal, and to speculate about the effect of 
the one building at Panama. Thus he gets a cleaner conception 
of the meaning of cause and effect in history, and begins to 
feel the fascinating force of the current in its stream. 

3. The Third Windozv : Pictures : The first two windows ap- 
peal to the reason ; the next two to the imagination. The third 
window is the use of pictures. If any one doubts their charm, 
let him go to a general reading room and observe how pop- 
ular the illustrated periodicals are, or let him consider the suc- 
cess of the moving picture show, or watch the effect of the 
strong paintings in our galleries on the crowds that gaze 
upon them. Of all subjects tought history seems to me to lend 
itself most readily to pictorial treatment. Yet what teacher 
really utilizes the help that pictures can render? The physics 
room has its apparatus, the mathematics room now frequently 
has its wooden reproductions of geometrical figures, and the 
botany room has artificial flowers that can be taken to pieces ; 
but where is the history room that has on its walls pictures of 
famous men and women, of historic buildings, or of epoch 
making incidents? What school room in Alabama has even 
a copy of the famous picture of the Signing of the Declaration 
of Independence? 

Two good pictures, one of a mediaeval castle and the other 
of a mediaeval cathedral, will do more to help the youthful 
mind grasp the two sides of life in that period than pages of 
cold type. A picture of a Roman road showing its magnificent 
solidity is the most impressive evidence of the power of that 
empire ; and in looking at pictures of Greek pottery, or sculp- 
ture, or architecture many of us have felt something of the emo- 
tion described by Keats in his Ode to a Greecian Urn, although 
we lacked the genius to express it. 

There are many places where suitable pictures can be bought 
for a very small amount. If the money be lacking, a small be- 
ginning can be made by requesting the members of the class 
to bring any cuts from magazines or papers that deal with his- 



43 

torical matters. An interesting, if not an artistic, collection 
can thus be made, the stimulating value of which will soon 
show itself in a rapid flow of unconventional questions. 

4. The Fourth Window. Stories: This like the last window 
opens a vista to the imagination. I suspect that the very sug- 
gestion of the name, the window of stories, will call forth two 
criticisms : one that stories are not history, the other that few 
teachers can tell them well. I admit the accuracy of both 
statements, but deny their applicability. 

It is true that stories are not history ; but they may arouse 
a lively interest in it, as gazing upon the beauty of the heaven 
on a summer night is a poor substitute for systematic astron- 
omy, but may lead to the study of it. So a story about Caesar 
or Napoleon may start an interest in him and lead to a study of 
his real history. In history, as in life, persons often attract 
our attention and remain in our memories because of some 
striking peculiarity which can best be recorded by an anecdote, 
a story, or an amusing incident. 

Nor is it necessary that the teacher should be a good story 
teller. Anecdotes may be read aloud to the class, or they may 
be posted on the wall. They can be found in popular biogra- 
phies, and in many histories, especially in those intended for 
children. Plutarch's Lives will be found a perfect storehouse 
for ancient history. If the teacher will keep a scrap-book for 
usable incidents, it will abundantly repay for the trouble that 
it costs. 

5. The Fifth Window : Reading : The last window to which 
I refer is the window of reading. It would seem the most 
natural thing in the world that the study of history should 
lead to a wider reading of historical books ; yet we all know 
that it seldom does. At this junction point on our route for 
the transportation of knowledge to the pupil, bad connections 
are the rule, and much freight is lost. The trouble seems to be 
a double one : first, the problem of selecting such reading as 
is well adapted to go along with the text book and is neither 
too hard nor too long and grows directly out of the text so 
that any interest aroused in the lesson carries the pupil easily 
into it ; second, the difficulty of supplying the books where 
there are little or no library facilities. Something has been 



44 

done to fill this want. For nearly every important field of his- 
tory there are now accessible good books containing extracts 
from writers contemporary with the events described. These 
do not cost much and contain a good deal that is vivid and 
attractive to a high school pupil. Under the guidance of a 
skillful teacher they may be used with profit. They have the 
further advantage of bringing the student into direct contact 
with the evidence upon which historical judgments rest, and 
of thus training him to independence of thought. But nothing 
can take the place of a school library, containing some good 
history and a liberal supply of readable biographies and books 
of travel. Our schools are equipping laboratories for physics 
and chemistry and mechanic arts ; they simply must not neglect 
their libraries or they can not properly teach history. 

The Historical Attitude of Mind. 

Now in conclusion what should be the ideal toward which 
the teaching of history should look ? I think it can be summed 
up as the cultivation of an historical attitude of mind. It is 
often said that this is a scientific age; it is just as truly an 
historical age. We have, it is true, adopted a critical attitude 
toward everything and call unceasingly for the evidence ; and 
history, like other branches of research, has become more 
scientific. But, after all, the most striking characteristic of 
our time is not so much this critical tendency as it is the grow- 
ing realization that nothing can be adequately understood save 
as a growth or development ; and thus modern science is as- 
suming more and more the historical standpoint. Under these 
circumstances surely history would cease to be true to its own 
mission if it should fail to cultivate the attitude of mind that 
sees the development of things. To the historian the automo- 
bile and the old-fashioned traction engine are the same thing 
in different stages. To him the modern English parliament is 
but an outgrowth of the Saxon Witenagemot, and he watches 
the present struggle over its powers and structure, not as a 
partisan, but as a philosopher eager to trace its next phase. In 
human life and in human institutions he learns to observe 
"first the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear." 



45 



MATHEMATICS. 



By PROFESSOR J. J. DOSTER. 



In times past Mathematics along with the ancient languages 
constituted the bulk of almost every course of study and requir- 
ed the greater part of the pupil's time and effort. Other sub- 
jects were deemed of minor inportance and only these made the 
objects of serious study. In most schools proficiency in math- 
ematics was the chief standard by which the scholarship of a 
pupil was judged. In recent years, however, owing to the in- 
creasing demands of modern life, the curriculum has been 
greatly broadened by the addition of the modern languages, 
English, history, the physical sciences and industrial subjects, 
and because of this, mathematics no longer dominates school- 
work as it once did. It must now take rank along with other 
subjects and receive with them its proportionate share of the 
pupil's time. 

Since the enrichment of the high school curriculum by the 
addition of other subjects has made necessary the cutting down 
of the time formerly devoted to mathematics, and since it is 
commonly asserted by educators that in the teaching of no oth- 
er subject is there such a waste of time and energy as in the 
teaching of this, it is imperative that good teaching be done in 
order that the pupil may accomplish the required work in 
arithmetic, algebra and geometry before finishing the high 
school course. Results show that the ordinary method of 
teaching mathematics in both the elementary and high school 
are stupefying and deadly. The child begins the study of 
arithmetic usually at the age of seven and continues it for seven 
or eight years, and is often unable to solve easy problems in 
fractions, interest or the "rule of three." After "completing" 
algebra the high school pupil frequently cannot solve the sim- 
plest quadratic equations "without looking at the book." Such 
being the case, it is time for teachers of mathematics to wake 
up and begin inquiring into the causes of the inefficiency of 
their pupils and the ineffectiveness of their teaching. 



46 

The following books should be in the hands of every teacher : 

Young's Teaching of Mathematics in the Secondary School. 
(Longmans, Green & Co., New York.) 

Smith's Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. (McMillan 
Company, Atlanta.) 

Ball's Short History of Mathematics. (McMillan Co.) 

First Year. 

Arithmetic. — Five periods per week during First Half Year. 

During this time the pupils are expected to review the fun- 
damental operations of arithmetic and apply the principles mas- 
tered in fractions, interest, discount, etc. Thorough proficiency 
may not be expected here, nor need the pupils be expected to 
solve all sorts of arithmetical problems. A good working 
knowledge of the fundamental operations is the aim to be at- 
tained ; and when this is reached it is time to begin the study 
of more abstract subjects. Since geometry and algebra deal 
with principles that find application in arithmetic, it is a waste 
of time to put off the study of these branches until arithmetic 
has been mastered. The truth is there can be no clear full ap- 
preciation of arithmetic until the subject is illumined by the 
light which comes fro ma study of more abstract mathematics. 

Algebra. — Five periods per week during Second Half Year. 

In making the transition from arithmetic to algebra care- 
ful teaching should be done in order to insure on the part of 
the pupil a clear understanding of the meaning and relations 
of algebraic terms. At first but little stress should be laid upon 
definitions, axioms, etc. These will be more readily learned 
after some progress has already been made. "Make haste 
slowly" should be the watchword with beginners. 

Second Year. 

Algebra. — Five periods per week during First Half Year. 

This subject is continued from the previous year and ex- 
tends to quadratics. The equation, clearing of fractions and 
elimination are topics that need carefully to be stressed. Since 



47 

most pupils meet with difficulty in solving problems, it is an 
excellent plan to approach the study of these by the means of 
graphical statements. When the elements of a problem are 
concretely presented by the aid of lines, but little difficulty is 
experienced in forming equations in the solution. Teachers 
will find many helpful suggestions in Aley's Graphs, a small 
pamphlet published by D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, and 
in the recent high school texts in algebra. 

Plane Geometry. — Five periods per week during Second Half 
Year. 

Plane geometry now takes the place of algebra and con- 
tiues for one year. 

The difficulties that a student encounters in beginning geom- 
etry are due not so much to the subject itself as to the way it 
is usually approached. If plunged at once into the subject 
without previous preparation the student is unable to grasp 
the meaning of the abstract definitions, or to follow the close 
sequence of the reasoning process. The proper method of ap- 
proach for the average pupil is through concrete geometry — 
the drawing of lines, angles, construction of geometrical fig- 
ures, and the linear solution of sample problems involving data 
easily comprehended by the learner — a subject sometimes called 
geometrical drawing. (See Geometrical Drawing.) If geo- 
metrical drawing be taught by the teacher of geometry, it can 
be made a most effective introduction to this study. 

Third Year. 

Geometry. — Five periods per week during First Half Year. 

The study of plane geometry is continued and completed 
during the first half of the year. Special attention should 
be given to the solution of original propositions in order to 
give pupils independence of thought and to discourage memo- 
riter recitations. If taught successfully the following results 
should be produced : 

1. "Familiarity on part of the pupil with the common 
geometrical figures and the theorems relating to them. 

2. Ability to construct such figures accurately with rule and 
compass. 



48 

3. Reasonable appreciation of deductive reasoning and rea- 
sonable resourcefulness in applying deduction processes to the 
solution of exercises of moderate difficulty. 

4. Reasonable appreciation of the utility of geometry. 
To accomplish the foregoing results : 

1. Give the class thorough training in geometrical draw- 
ing before beginning geometry proper. During this period 
of preparation emphasis should be placed on the acquisition 
of concepts, rather than vigorous proofs. 

2. Throughout the course use drawing instruments upon 
the board and upon paper. 

3. Give original exercises daily. Teach general methods 
of analysis, such as lines may be proved equal by showing 
them to be homologous parts of equal triangles. 

4. Have pupils prepare summaries of facts known about 
particular figures, e. g., the facts known about isosceles tri- 
angles. 

5. Much attention should be given to theorems having 
practical applications. Many exercises should deal with real 
problems selected from surveying, architecture, design and 
drawing. (See studies in Secondary Education, which can be 
had for 30 cents from Teachers College, New York.) 

6. Algebraic symbolism and reasoning should be employed 
freely. 

7. Insist upon good form in the presentation of oral and 
written recitations. Half statements should not be accepted. 
Insist on the quotation of full theorems as authorities on 
demonstration. 

Algebra. — Five periods per week during Second Half Year. 

Advanced algebra is now taken up and continued for one 
year, 

A thorough review should be made of the fundamental oper- 
ations, — addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, of 
factoring, fractions, and eliminations, topics previously stud- 
ied, before beginning the more difficult parts of the book. 
Affected quadratics and radicals should be thoroughly taught. 
The teacher should strive to have the pupils master principles, 
as well as processes. 



49 



Fourth Year. 

Algebra. — Five periods per week during First Half Year. 

Solid Geometry. — Five periods per week during Sacond 
Half Year. 

Those students who are expecting to go to college, and 
others who so desire, may begin and complete solid 
geometry during the second half of the year. To teach 
the subject well the teacher should provide himself with suit- 
able models for illustrative purposes. The pupils should be 
required to construct models of card-board. The practical 
applications of the subject should be stressed. 

Arithmetic. — Five periods' per week during Second Half 
Year. 

Instead of solid geometry, if the pnpil so desires, advanced 
arithmetic may be taken up and studied during the remainder 
of the year. Now is the time for the pupil to get a broad 
grasp of the subject of arithmetic, for he is able because of 
his study of algebra and geometry to discover underlying prin- 
ciples and to apply them in the solution of new and untried 
problems. It is hardly necessary to add that the teacher 
should deal with the subject in a comprehensive way so as to 
secure and hold the interest and attention of his advanced 
grade of students. 



4 E 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



By DR. W. F. PROUTY. 

In the teaching of any science it is essential first of all to 
acquaint one's self with the purposes of the course, and with 
this clearly in mind to search for the best methods of accom- 
plishing the desired results. The purposes of the course 
should, obviously, be governed by the needs. The first year 
high school science should follow logically in its make-up af- 
ter the Nature Study and the Geography of the grades, and 
it should form a basis for the more advanced and specialized 
sciences which are to follow, such as Biology, Agriculture, 
Physics, Chemistry, Physiography, Commercial Geography, 
etc. It must, then, serve as a finishing course in Regional 
Geography and also as a very broad and generalized introduc- 
tion to science and scientific methods. 

It is the general opinion among educators' that the first 
year high-school science should be somewhat of the nature of 
Physical Geography. There is, however, also a rapidly grow- 
ing conviction that many of the courses at present given un- 
der the name of Physical Geography are not at all adapted to 
this position. This is" so largely through the fact that we are 
fitting too much for college and not enough with a thought 
for the ninety per cent of students who never go to college. 
Because of the fact that so few students go on into higher 
fields of learning, we should make this early science as prac- 
tical as possible in its bearing, without taking away from its 
scientific value. 

With the above thoughts in view I wish to present very 
briefly what seems to be the most essential things to keep in 
mind in connection with the study of this first year high school 
science. 

First and foremost the humanistic standpoint should be the 
one chosen in our study of the changes and character of the 
earth's surface. How is man related to this or that chancre or 



51 

process, how limited, how assisted? By this method of study 
we not only record the phenomenon but see its practical signi- 
ficance. 

Secondly, we do not as a rule pay enough attention to the 
regional geography of the countries studied and I would em- 
phasize the necessity of our giving greater thought to this 
phase, especially concerning our own country and Europe. 
A most excellent method of doing this is by employing the 
physiographic division as a unit of study, since the conditions 
affecting man's activities are more uniform over such prov- 
inces than over provinces as ordinarily grouped by states. For 
instance the Piedmont regions' are sharply defined from the 
Coastal Plain regions. The effects which these two areas have 
upon mankind are entirely distinct. 

Thirdly some kind of laboratory or field work in which the 
student is made to observe for himself and record the phenom- 
ena, is absolutely essential to a good course in this early 
science. 

We will find if we apply the above principles, that certain 
subjects often taught in the early science course, should be 
less emphasized than is ordinarily done, and that they should be 
left to a later and more advanced text on Physical Geography 
or Physiography. For instance in the study of the relations 
of earth and the solar system we should consider essential such 
things as standard time, changes of seasons, the international 
date line, etc., but as much less so, facts relating to the size 
of sun and planets and their periods of rotation and revolu- 
tion. The study of the ocean as a modifier of climate, a de- 
stroying and constructing agent in land forms etc., should be 
emphasized rather than ocean depth and temperature. In the 
study of the lands we wish to know the processes by which 
the lands are changing their forms, and the topography being 
modified, so that the relations of climate and man to the area 
are in consequence being altered. We should not concern our- 
selves', however, with systematic classification of these vari- 
ous land forms at this time. 

The laboratory and field work should occupy one fourth of 
the time of the course and the work should be recorded in 
neatly kept note books of uniform size. 



ol' 



Laboratory and Field Work. 

The subjects as outlined below are not complete but are in- 
tended as suggestions' to aid the teacher in choosing those sub- 
jects for laboratory and field work which seem to the author 
best adapted to be studied during the first year high-school 
science course. As ordinarily outlined, the work in Physical 
Geography is treated under five general headings as follows : 

1. The Planet Earth. 

2. The Lands. 

3. The Ocean. 

4. The Atmosphere. 

5. The Life of the Earth. 

The above order of presentation of the subjects is not al- 
ways followed, nor is it always best. Especially is this true 
for our part of the country where we can do field work con- 
veniently throughout the greater part of the winter. There- 
fore in our southland the chapter on the Atmosphere should 
come next after the study of the Earth as a planet. This is 
done so that the observations of the weather may be contin- 
ued throughout the year. The field and laboratory work in 
connection with the study of the Land and the Atmosphere 
should occupy at least three quarters of the total amount, as 
these two subjects' are of such economic and vital interest to 
the everyday life of the student. 

Planet Earth. 

Under the subject of the "Planet Earth" two instructive 
and interesting exercises should be done : 

1. By mean of a perpendicular stake three or four feet high, 
set in level ground, and the shadow cast by it from the sun, 
determine : a. The north and south line, told by the direction 
of the shortest shadow cast during the day. b. Solar noon 
or true noon, told by the time when the shadow is the short- 
est or in other words the sun is the highest in the heavens. 



53 

c. The latitude of the place of observation in degrees, which 
is equal to the complement of the angle of the suns elevation 
above the horizon at solar noon minus" or plus the amount of 
the sun's angular distance south or north of the Equator re- 
spectively. 

2. By observations of sun's mid-day or maximum altitude, 
taken at weekly intervals, determine whether the sun is trav- 
eling northward or southward and at what rate in degrees per 
day. 

Atmosphere. 

1. With the beginning of the study of the atmosphere, have 
a continuous daily record kept of the temperature, general di- 
rection and velocity of wind, amount of precipitation, charac- 
ter of clouds, etc. Keep up these observations throughout the 
year. Let each student make the observations for a week at 
a time. Compare the results with the weather map issued by 
the nearest Weather Bureau station. These maps can be had 
free upon application to the Chief of the Weather Bureau at 
Washington. 

2. Study carefully in laboratory the daily weather maps of 
the Weather Bureau. 

3. Construct weather maps from data taken from a well 
developed high and low area weather map of the Weather 
Bureau, upon blank maps which are used by the Weather Bu- 
reau for this purpose and which can be gotten from the near- 
est station of that Bureau, usually free of charge. 

4. Make rainfall maps of the U. S. and explain the differ- 
ence in the amounts of precipitation in the different areas. 
Do the same for the different continents. 

The Lands. 

1. In connection with study of the lands and subsequently 
in the course, encourage the students to make collections of 
rocks, minerals and all kinds of natural history specimens. 
This is' one of the best ways of arousing and sustaining the 
students' interest in scientific work. 



54 

2. Study a few of the more common rock-forming miner- 
als, some fifteen to twenty in number, get familiar with their 
color, hardness, cleavage, etc. 

3. Study the more common rocks, notice how they are put 
together, of what kind of minerals they are formed. Neat and 
compact sets of well labeled and described minerals and rocks 
can be had very cheaply from laboratory supply houses. (See 
list of such houses at end of article.) 

4. Study rocks and minerals in the field and notice their 
processes of weathering and their decomposition products. 

5. The study of the soils should have much attention in 
this early course and the following characteristics should be 
noted : size, smoothness, and mineral composition of grains ; 
amount of air space; consistency while wet and after drying; 
permeability; ease of working. Consider each type from the 
agricultural standpoint and estimate if possible, by plant 
growth, the relative importance of each in respect to certain 
plants. This may be best ascertained by taking notes relative 
to the vegetation in the field from which the soil came. Note 
also whether the soil that you have has been transported by 
the streams or whether it is taken from above the rock from 
which it was derived. 

6. Study topographic maps. Construct a topographic map 
from blank map having the elevations' of a sufficient number 
of places noted upon it. Also make profiles (elevations) from 
these topographic maps. 

7. Make careful study of the different phases of stream 
erosion and deposition, either from observations on some near- 
by branch, river, or gully, or by observation upon some ar- 
tificially formed stream in the school yard or laboratory table. 
Make use of different mixtures of sand and gravel, sand and 
clay, gravel and clay and sprinkle with hose or pot. The 
minature erosion forms can always be advantageously studied 
even if the real streams are accessible, because with a little in- 
genuity on the part of the teacher in the arrangement of the 
sands etc., and the correct placing of obstructions as pebbles 
and chips of wood, all the phases of stream erosion from wa- 



55 

ter-falls to meanders can be most clearly brought out, together 
with the many phases of sedimentation in the different kinds 
of materials used, in the space of a few feet. 

8. Make a map of the Physiographic regions of the United 
States and study each of the regions by means of a represen- 
tative topographic map.* 

9. Make a large scale map of the area immediately sur- 
rounding the school. Use compass for directions" and pace for 
distances. Put in topographic lines, using the most conven- 
ient contour interval for the nature and ground mapped. 

10. In connection with the special study of the United 
States and Europe make a map of each showing its drainage 
basins. 

The Ocean. 

1. On blank outline map of the world (Mercator projec- 
tion) draw the chief ocean currents and streams. Compare 
an isothermal chart of the world with the map of ocean cur- 
rents and note the effects of the warm and cold streams in the 
modification of the climate in the temperate zones. England 
and Southern Labrador have about the same latitude. 

The Meeting of Land and Sea. 

This is of much more interest to the student than the study 
of the ocean and should take up more of the laboratory as 
well as the recitation time than the former. 

1. If possible have some good models of the shore lines 
representing at least two conditions : the one of the advancing 
sea and the other of the advancing land. The three Harvard 
Geographical models are most excellent for this study. 

2. Study carefully some of the topographic sheets of the 
L T nited States Geological Survey. Contrast some from the 
coast of Maine with some from the coast of New Jersey and 
the Carolinas. Give attention to the different kinds of har- 



*Use as a basis of this study Monograph on "Physiographic Re- 
gions of U. S." American Book Co. 



56 

bors of the United States and explain their relative importance. 
New York — A drowned valley harbor. 
Boston — A moraine harbor. 
New Orleans — A river harbor. 
Galveston — A bar formed harbor. 

Fquipment. 

Geography cannot be learned satisfactorily without suitable 
material and appliances any better than can Physics or Chem- 
istry. This' fact should be brought to the notice of the school 
board and an appropriation should be had for fitting up a room 
in a suitable manner for the study of this early science. All 
the equipment for this course can be made use of also by stu- 
dents in the more advanced courses in either Physiography or 
Commercial Geography. The extra equipment for the more 
advanced courses' in either Physiography or Commercial Ge- 
ography. The extra equipment for the more advanced courses 
should consist mainly in a larger number of atlases and topog- 
raphic maps. The list of essentials in laboratory equipment 
will differ with varied localities and under different conditions, 
so that one cannot make any very definite statement as to 
what the schools as a whole should or should not have. A 
great deal depends upon the ingenuity of the teacher to use 
one thing for many purposes. I do wish, however, to suggest 
the desirability of a number of pieces of apparatus, of certain 
collections', and of certain books, charts, etc. Every high 
school teaching this early science should have at least the 
equipment which is starred (*) in the following list: 

Globes. 1. *A good 12in. spherical globe of 

the world $ 3 30 

2. A lar^e flat globe of the world (27in.) 

International Globe Co., N. Y.__ 2 00 
Models. 3. Harvard Geographical Models three 

in number __ 20 00 

4. Howells set of five models of the 

continents __ 150 00 



57 

Maps. Large scale maps for the wall and 

table are indispensable for class- 
room and laboratory, and can be 
be had at small cost.t 

5. *Maps of the Mississippi River 

large-scale, 5 miles to the inch, 

eight maps __ 1 00 

6. Maps of Lower Mississippi River 

scale lin.-l mile, 32 sheets 1 60 

For the Mississippi River maps 
address Mississippi River Com- 
mission, St. Louis, Mo. 

7. *U. S. topographic maps. These 

are very useful and can be had, 
if as many as a hundred are or- 
dered, at 3 cents' each. Consult 
pamphlet list to determine maps 
wanted for study. t It would be 
well to get enough of each of at 
least three sheets to go around 
the class, and also one each of a 
a large number of sheets, illus- 
trating a large number of sub- 
jects, as for example : Dissected 
Plains, Flood Plains, Glacial 
Lakes, etc., etc. 

8. *Folios Nos. 1 and 2 of United 

States Geological Survey, illus- 
trating Physiographic Types at 
25 cents __ 50 

9. Pictures. A collection made from 

magazines, railroad advertise- 
ments', etc., is most excellent. A 
few uniform sets can be purchas- 
ed which are to be recom- 
mended. 



58 



a. * Scenes from every land, 500 pho- 

tographs, J. W. Jones, Springfield, 

Ohio __ __ 5 00 

b. America photographed, 210 views, 

Donahue and Hennebry, Chicago 1 00 

c. *Our own country, 500 pictures with 

descriptive text. The National 

Co., St. Louis, Mo 3 50 

10. Lantern slides can be had from the 

different scientific supply houses 
at a rate of about 35c per slide. 
(See list of supply houses at end 
of article). 

11. *Large chart illustrating iso- 

therm, isobars of world for Jan- 
uary, July and the year, also 
larg-e chart showing circulation 
of atmosphere. 

12. *Blank maps of various sizes and 

kinds. 

General Apparatus. 

13. *Compass __ 3 00 up. 

14. ^Barometer __ __ 5 00 up. 

15. *Thermometer __ __ 1 00 up. 

16. Reading glass 2in. to 3in. diameter. 

17. Small pocket lenses for individual 

students. Have each student buy 

one if possible 15c 1 00 

18. *Good sized protractor, celluloid 

will do. Inexpensive paper pro- 
tractors for each student would 
also be advantageous 75 

19. *Weather-vane of good length and 

easy bearing placed above houses 
and trees, so as to register true di- 
rection of wind. 



59 

20. *Rain-gauge, Weather Bureau 

standard __ __ 1 25 

21. Stereopticon lantern 35 00 up. 

22. *Some dilute hydrochloric acid for 

testing rocks and soils. 

23. *A few test tubes. 

24. *A number of pint Mason jars' for 

the study of soils. 

25. *Tables, suitable for map work for 

students. 

26. *Cabinets suitable for holding maps, 

charts, models, and various col- 
lections. 

Collections. 

27. *Rock collection of at least twenty 

of the more common species. 

28. *Mineral collection of at least twenty 

of the more common species. 

29. Collection of the typical soils of the 

locality. 

30. Various other collections such as 

grains, economical and useful 
plants, fibres, woods, shells, in- 
sects. 

Reference Books. 

The teacher of physical Geography should be familiar with 
its literature, or he should at least be able to turn quickly to 
important lists of Bibliography of the subject. 

For lists of literature bearing upon the subject consult the 
appendices of some of the standard texts in Physical Geogra- 
phy. The lists found in Davis's, Dryer's, Tarr's Physical Ge- 
ographies among others, are most excellent. Also consult 
"Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographi- 
cal Books." Mill, $1.25, Longman, Green & Co. 



CO 

For general reference the Annual Reports, Monographs, 
Professional Papers and Bulletins of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, and the various State Geological and Natural 
History Surveys ; publications of the United States and State 
Departments of Agriculture, the United States Weather Bu- 
reau, and the Smithsonian Institute of Washington, are very 
valuable and may be had as a rule for the asking. Send to each 
of the above Bureaus for lists of their publications from which 
to select literature. 

Periodicals. 

It. is very essential that the teacher of a subject which is so 
rapidly developing as the first year high-school science, 
should have access to the most up-to-date periodicals. The 
interest and value of the geographical study to the student 
will also be very much enhanced by the reading of geograph- 
ical magazines and journals. 

Out of a large list of periodicals' the following are chosen 
as most desirable for the school library: 

1. *Journal of School Geography, Lancaster, Pa.__$l 00 

2. *National Geographic Magazine, Washington, 

D. C. 2 50 

3. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, New 

York __ __ 4 00 

4. Geographical Journal, London, England 6 00 

The Journal of School Geography is more especially adapted 
for the teacher than the student and should as far as possible 
be in the hands of every one teaching this - science. The Na- 
tional Geographic Magazine is perhaps for the price the best 
periodical for the students, as it is very broad in its scope and 
profusely illustrated. 



Gl 



Supply Houses. 

There are a number of houses which supply equipment of 
one kind or another for the Physical Geography laboratory, 
among these the following should be mentioned : 

1. Central Scientific Society, Chicago, 111., furnishing all 
kinds of Physical Geography supplies. 

2. Foote Mineral Co., Philadelphia, Pa., furnishing rocks, 
minerals, and all kinds of cabinets. 

3. Wards Natural History Society, Rochester, N. Y., fur- 
nishing models, restorations, and collections. 

4. Keystone View Co., St. Louis, Mo., furnishing lantern 
slides, stereopticon views, pictures, etc. 

The members of the Departments of Geology and Biology 
of the University of Alabama, together with the officers of the 
State Natural History Museum at the University, are anxious 
to co-operate with the high schools of the State in establishing 
at each school such collections of minerals, animals, plants, 
etc., as may best develop the interest of the students in the 
science of Natural History. To this end a small collection 
of most attractice sea-shells, well labeled and described, is 
offered free to each of those high schools of the State which 
will agree to put this collection on exhibition in a well lighted 
and attractive place and also provide room for other collections 
which they will encourage the students to make. The iden- 
tification of all specimens sent to the University for that pur- 
pose will gladly be made, as far as possible. 

Please direct communications concerning collections and 
send all specimens for determination to the State Geologist, 
University, Alabama. The State Museum would also be glad 
to make exchanges with any of the high schools of the State 
for duplicate material which they may have or can gather. 



62 
BIOLOGY. 



By PROFESSOR F. E. LLOYD. 

Biology includes the two subsidiary subjects', Botany and 
Zoology. While a course in biology, meaning a study of ani- 
mals and plants taken together, offers some advantages ; it has 
been found that, for the high school, the separate treatment of 
the sub-divisions", is on the whole more feasible. For this rea- 
son outlines for these courses are given separately. It is con- 
templated that the time shall be divided equally, botany taking 
one-half of the year, and zoology the other half. 

The order in which they should be taken is a question 
which may best be decided by the teacher. Insects, with 
which the course in zoology is begun, are very plentiful when 
school opens in the fall, and this is a very good reason for 
starting the course at this time. Spring is correspondingly the 
more natural time for the work with plants, though there is 
plenty of material at all times, in Alabama. 

The text-book for use in Botany is Bergen's Elements' of 
Botany, and this will be found to cover satisfactorily the 
ground indicated in the outline, the purpose of which is pri- 
marily to indicate the most important subjects to be consid- 
ered. 

Botany. 

The following outline of a course of botany for the High 
School is one which has been worked out by a Committee on a 
Standard Cours'e in Elementary Botany, appointed by the 
Botanical Society of America.* 

This standard course may therefore be taken as representing 
to a close degree of approximation the general scope of a good 
elementary course in botany for the high school, being recog- 
nized by the botanical teachers throughout the country as em- 
bodying a concensus of opinion which is practically unani- 
mous. 



G3 

It is not the purpose that such an outline be rigidly followed. 
It may very well be understood that at the present moment, in 
Alabama, it may be difficult to live up entirely to the standard 
set, but it will very properly be regarded as a desirable ideal to- 
ward which to work. It may be emphasized that it is more 
important to do well so much as it proves feasible to do, than 
to try to cover the whole outline in a poor fashion. 

Order of topics. The order of topics followed under the 
sub-head A and B, Part I is generally considered quite as good 
if not better than any other for an introductory course, but, 
here again it is not intended that it must be adhered to. It 
is, furthermore not contemplated that these parts should be 
treated separately. Indeed, it is understood that the better 
plan is to associate the topics of B, part 1, with those of A, 
part 1, at the time when the material lends' itself best for the 
particular purpose. By comparing the outline with the matter 
presented in any of the better elementary text for high school 
use, one may readily decide how this association of the topics in 
question may be brought about. 

But it may further be noted that either Part I or Part II 
may precede the other, so that, if one prefers, the course may 
be begun by a study of types of plants. This, while adopted 
by many teachers, is, we believe not the better, as it 
is less adaptable to young students. Furthermore it is not so 
easy to correlate the work with that in elementary agriculture, 
and this, we take it, is highly important. The course in bot- 
any, while intended as such, can and should be made lo be as 
practical as possible. That is" to say, it ought to give the pupil 
training and information in the fundamental facts about the 
life histories and physiological processes in plants, all of which 
underlie the successful modern development of agriculture in 
the widest sense. The contact of botany with other modern 
activities, including manufacture, health (public and private 
hygiene) and the conservation of natural resources by forestry 
methods, should be indicated as fully as possible, so that our 
public school pupils may be led to see not only the general and 



04 

special importance of botany in modern life, but to appreciate 
the opportunities it offers for life work. The increasing de- 
mand for skilled botanists in the management of private en- 
terprises depending upon specialized forms of agriculture, for 
scientifically trained men who can help to solve problems of the 
manufactures, the awakening to the duty of the public toward 
hygiene, and the consequent demand for health officers ; the 
growing demand for foresters in every state ; the increasing 
responsibilities of parents in the proper training of their chil- 
dren as regards the fundamentals facts of life, including the 
matter of personal cleanliness in the bacteriological sense, and 
the responsibilities attaching to the individual in this regard ; 
all these are fundamental reasons for the proper use of botany 
and zoology in the school. The general acceptance of the 
truth of this claim puts the responsibility definitely upon teach- 
ers of the biological sciences in the schools, and botany must 
properly bear its share in the task. 

The teacher should keep constantly in mind the fundamental 
principle of good botany teaching, namely, to lay stress at 
all times upon the importance of the method of botany. For 
this reason the experimental aspect of the science is above all 
important. No good teacher will be satisfied with anything 
short of the completely logical, if otherwise incomplete, proof 
or argument. The good, more than anything else, which 
science has done, is to development a method of thought, or, 
if you wish, a method of study. The essence of this is the de- 
mand for adequate proof, and for the refinement of the 
methods of research by which this" may be obtained. Teach- 
ers who have not had opportunities for special study in this 
direction, should give themselves the opportunity by the studv 
of the books mentioned in the list below, mentioned roughly 
in the order of immediate importance. 



05 
Outline. 

r 

Specifications of the Topics to be Studied: 

Part I. The General Principles of (a) Anatomy and 
Morphology, (b) Physiology and Ecology. 

A. Anatomy and Morphology. 

The Seed. Four types (dicotyledon without and with en- 
dosperm, a monocotyledon and a gymnosperm) ; structure and 
homologous parts. Food supply; experimental determination 
af 'its nature and value. Phenomena of germination and 
growth of embryo into a seedling (including bursting from 
the seed, assumption of position and unfolding of parts). 

Note: Much may be said in favor of beginning this part of the 
work by a comparative study of the fruit, rather than the seed. By 
this means the pupil better understands the nature of the "grain" 
of corn. 

The Shoot. Gross anatomy of a typical shoot ; including the 
relationship of position of leaf, stem (and root"), the arrange- 
ment of leaves' and buds on the stem, and deviations (through 
light adjustment, etc.), from symmetry. Buds, and the mode 
of origin of new leaf and stem; winter buds in particular. 
Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). 
General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of 
shoot ; annual growth ; shedding of bark and leaves. 

The Root. Gross anatomy of a typical root ; position and 
origin of secondary roots ; hair-zone, cap and growing-point. 
Specialized and metamorphosed roots. General structure and 
distribution of the leading tissues of the root. 

The Flower. Structure of a typical flower, especially of 
ovule and pollen; functions of the parts. Comparative mor- 
phological study of four or more different marked types, with 
the construction of transverse and longitudinal diagrams. 

The Fruit. Structure of a typical fruit. Comparative mor- 
phological study of four or more marked types with diagrams. 

5 E 



66 

This comparative morphological study of flowers and fruits may 
advantageously be postponed to the eud of II- and then 1 taken up 
in connection with classification of the Angiosperms. 

The Cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap-cavity, wall. 

As to the study of the cell, it is by no means to be postponed 
for consideration by itself after the other topics, as its position in 
the above outline may seem to imply, but it is to be brought in 
earlier along with the study of the shoot or root, and continued 
from topic to topic. Although enough study of the individual 
cell is to be made to give an idea of its structure (a study which 
may very advantageously be associated with the physiological topics 
mentioned first under B). the principal microscopical work should 
consist in the recognition and study of the distribution of the lead- 
ing tissues. 

B. Physiology and Ecology. 

Role of water in the plant; absorption (osmosis), path of 
transfer, transpiration, turgidity and its mechanical z'alue, 
plasuiolysis. 

Photosynthesis; dependence of starch formation upon 
chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide; evolution of oxygen, 
observation of starch grains. 

Respiration; need of oxygen in growth, evolution of carbon 
dioxide. 

Digestion ; digestion of starch with diastase, and its role in 
translocation of foods. 

Irritability ; geotropisin, heliotropisni and hydrotropism. 

Growth ; localisation in higher plants; amount in elongating 
stems ; relationships to temperature. 

Fertilization; sexual and vegetaitiz'e reproduction. 

Although for convenience of reference, the physiological topics 
are here grouped together, they should by no means be studied by 
themselves and apart from anatomy and morphology. On the con- 
trary, they should be taken up along with the study of the struc- 
tures in which the processes occur, and which they help to explain ; 
thus, photosynthesis should be studied with the leaf, as should 



67 

also transpiration, while digestion may best come with germination, 
osmotic absorption with the root, and so on. The student should 
either try. or at least aid in trying, experiments to demonstrate 
the fundamental processes indicated above. 

Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special func- 
tions. 

Dissemination. Cross-pollination. 

Light relations of green tissues ; leaf mosaics. 

Special habitats ; Mesophytes, Hydrophytes, Halophytes, 
Xerophytes ; Climbers, Epiphytes, Parasites (and Saprophy- 
tes), Insectivora. 

The topics in ecology (particularly the first four and in part 
the fifth), like those in physiology, are to be studied not by them- 
selves, but along with the structures with which they are most 
closely associated, as cross-pollination with the flower, dissemina- 
tion with the seed, etc. The fifth may most advantageously be 
studied with G. in Part II. 

In this connection field-work is of great importance, and, for 
some topics, indispensable, though much may be done with potted 
plants in green-houses, photographs, and museum specimens. It 
is strongly recommended that some systematic field-work be con- 
sidered as far as it goes with the laboratory work. The tempta- 
tions to haziness and guessing in ecology must be combated. 



68 



Part II. The Natural History of the Plant Groups, 
and Classification. 

A comprehensive summary of the great natural groups of 
plants, based upon the thorough study of the structure, re- 
production, and adaptations to habitat of one or two types 
from each group, supplemented and extended by more rapid 
study of other forms in those groups. Where living material 
is wanting for the later, preserved material and even good pic- 
tures may be used, and a standard text-book should be thor- 
oughly read. The general homologies from group to group 
should be understood, though it is not expected that these will 
be known in detail. 

In general, in this part of the course, it is recommended that 
much less attention be given to the lower and inconspicuous 
groups, and progressively more to the higher and conspicuous 
forms. 

Following is a list of recommended types from which, or 
their equivalents, selection may be made : 

A. Algae. Pleurococcus (forming a green incrustation on 
the bark of trees). Sphaerella (a common plant producing a 
red color in rocky pools and streams in early spring). 
Spirogyra (the common green water-silk seen in ponds in 
spring and fall). Vaucheria, Fucus, Nemalion (or Polysipho- 
nia or Coleochaete). 

B. Fungi. Bacteria,* Rhizopus or Mucor and Penicillium, 
(the common black and blue moulds of the pantey). Yeast, 
Puccinia (wheat or oat rust or a powdery mildew, Cedar- 
Apple rust,) Corn Smut, Mushroom or Toadstoll. 

Bacteria and yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a 
course, but their great economic prominence justifies their in- 
troduction 

C. Lichens. Any of the very common kind occurring on 
tree-trunks, rocks, etc. 

D. Bryophytes. In Hepaticae (Liverworts,) Radula (or 
Porella or Marchantia). In Musci, Minium (or Palytrichum 
or (Furaria.) 



69 

E. Pteridophytes. In Filicineae (ferns), Aspidium or equiv- 
alent, including, of course, the prothallus. 

*See below for special outline. 

In Equisetineae, Equisetum (Horse-tail or scouring rush). 

In Locopodineae, Lycopodium, and Selaginella (a common 
kind is found abundantly along streams in moist woods, or 
Isotes). 

F. Gymnosperms. Pine; cedar (the cedar-apple should be 
explained). 

G. Angiosperms. A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to 
be studied with reference to the homologies of their parts with 
those in the above groups ; together with representative plants' 
of the leading subdivisions and principal families of Angios- 
perms. 

Classification should include a study of the primary sub- 
divisions of the above groups, based on the comparison of the 
types with other living (preferably) or preserved material. 
The principal subdivisions of the Angiosperms, grouped on 
the Engler and Prantl system, should be understood. 

The ability to use manuals for the determination of the 
species' of flowering plants is not considered essential in this 
course, though it is most desirable. It should not be introduc- 
ed to the exclusion of any part of the course, but should be 
made voluntary work for those showing a taste for it. It 
should not be limited to learning names of plants, but should 
be made a study in the plan of classification as well. 

The preparation of an herbarium is not required nor rec- 
ommended except as voluntary work for those with a taste for 
collecting. If made, it should not represent so much a simple 
accumulation of species as some distinct idea of plant associa- 
tions, or of morphology or of representation of the groups', 
etc. 

A Brief Outline for the Study of Bacteria. 

Some practical knowledge of bacteria in their relations to 
public and individual health alone, aside from other consider- 
atons, is of such paramount importance that the suggestions 



70 

given below should be included in the course in botany, unless 
they are provided for in other courses, namely, in human phy- 
siology or zoology. 

Bacteria. General character, using pictures and descriptions 
supplemented, if possible, with microscopic demonstrations of 
stained preparations, obtainable from dealers. **Your Health 
Officer would probably be glad, to supply you with a few such 
microscopic preparations, for this purpose. If you show defi- 
nite interest, he will doubtless show you how to carry out a 
few fundamental operations such as sterilization, etc. 

Useful bacteria : nodules in legumes and their importance 
to the farmer, and so to humanity. Other useful bacteria. 

Harmful bacteria : animal, including human, diseases caus- 
ed by bacteria ; plant diseases similarly caused. 

Sterilization of preserved foods (and of gelatine culture 
media). 

Growth of (non-pathogenic) bacteria in gelatin or agar 
plate cultures of bacteria found in the air of the laboratory. 
Disinfection of a room. 

Methods of infection : from the hand to a gelatine plate, 
from an insect (house-fly) to a gelatine plate. 

Spread of disease by infection by the agency of public uten- 
sils, such as the school or train drinking cup. How to defend 
one's self against such infection. 

Books. 

Books are a very great help, if rightly used. The most use- 
ful books on Botany are those which stimulate to inquiry. 
Among many which might be mentioned the following short 
list is 1 given : 
Bergen, J. Y., The foundations of Botany. New York: Ginn 

& Co. 
Bergen and Davis, The Elements of Botany. New York: 

Ginn & Co. 
Coulter, J. M., Plant Relations. New York: D. C. Appleton 

& Co. $1,10. 



71 

Coulter, J. M., Plant Structures. New York: D. C. Appleton 

& Co. $1.20 
Ganong, W. F., The Teaching Botanist. New York : The 

MacMillan Co. 
*Ganong, W. F., Plant Physiology. New York: H. Hall & 

Co. 
*Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., The Teaching of Biology 

in the Secondary School. Longman, Green & Co., New 
York. $1.50. 
*Strasburger, Noll, Shenck and Karsten. 3rd. English Ed., 

New York : The MacMillan Co. 
Strasburger's Practical Botany, New York : The MacMillan 

Co. 
Osterhout, W. J. V., Experiments with Plants". New York: 

MacMillan Co. $1.50. 
Hills Bacteria in Everyday life. 
Coun. Bacteria ; Yeasts and moulds in the Home. Blakiston 

Sons. 
Bailev, L. H., Plant Breeding. New York: The MacMillan 

Co. 



Materials and Apparatus. 

Chemicals. 

Chrome alum. A one per cent, solution is an excellent pres- 
ervative of flowers for later dissection. They can be put up 
in quantities in ordinary Mason jars, but when studied they 
must be dissected in a saucer under water. 

Cobalt chloride. A very small amount need be purchased, 
say about 5 grams. Make up into a one per cent solution. 
Into this fluid ordinary thin, preferably filter paper or tough 
tissue paper may be dipped and dried. When thoroughly dry 
the color is bright blue. If a small fragment of the paper is 
land on the palm of the hand it will lose the blue color as a 
result of the action of moisture upon the chemical. For this 
reason, very instructive experiments to show the loss of water 



72 

by the leaves of plants may be done by placing similar squares 
of the paper in contact with a leaf and protected from the at- 
mosphere by small slips of glass. 

Pyrogallic acid. 

Diastase. (Taka.") 

Thymol. 

Caustic potash or common potash lye. 

Alcohol (denatured will do). 

Fehling's Solution. This can be made up as follows : Dis- 
solve 35 grams of sulphate of copper, 173 grams of Rochelle 
salts, 120 grams caustic soda, each in one litre of water. For 
testing tissues and fluids for the presence of sugar take equal 
amounts of each solution with two similar volumes of water, 
unless' you are testing a fluid. For the purpose of learning to 
apply this test, place a small piece of onion or beet in a test- 
tube with a small amount of Fehling's soluion and boil over 
an alcohol lamp. You should get a red precipitate of a copper 
oxide, indicating the presence of grape sugar. 

Glycerin. 

Iodine. In a one per cent, solution of potassium iodide 
place enough iodine crystals so that when dissolved you will 
have a solution of rather dark sherry color. It takes a very 
small amount of iodine. 

Red ink will serve for coloring water which may be used 
for tracing the path of the water through translucent stems and 
leaves. Also for staining, combined with or following Iodine. 

Nitric Acid. 

Hydrochloric Acid. 

Sulphuric Acid. 

Phloroglucine. 

Gelatin. 

Extract of Beef. 

Mercuric chloride tablets for disinfection of hands. 



73 



Equipment. 

It is quite important that, as quickly as possible, schools 
should provide space for a laboratory. The planning of a 
laboratory calls for special treatment in each case, according 
to the size and position of the room. Valuable hints may be 
obtained by consulting Ganong's Plant Physiology and Lloyd 
and Bigelow's Teaching of Biology. It would be wise to en- 
ter into correspondence with the Professors of Zoology and 
Botany in the State institutions of learning, or with the State 
Superintendents, who will refer you to proper sources of ad- 
vise. 

The equipment, aside from tables, and other furniture will 
consist of the following articles, which are purchasable in 
sufficient quantities for 15 to twenty pupils for about $75.00 
to $100.00 aside from a compound microscope, which will cost 
about $30.00. 

For each pupil, not necessarily used exclusively by one 
alone, the following articles' are generally required : 

One pair small scissors. 

One pair medium sized forceps. 

One scalpel (or pocket knife). 

Two dissecting needles. 

One hand lens (a Coddington, costing about $1.00). 

Two watch glasses (white butter dishes will answer). 

One pipette (medicine dropper). 

Note book with blank paper. There are several prepared 
note-books, with blank forms or guides to study, on the mar- 
ket, some of them good. These may prove of use. 

The instructor will need : 

1 Compound microscope, for study and for demonstrating 
special matters to the pupils, who will not have time enough 
for independent microscopic work, at least at present. 

I Sectioning knife. 

A supply of glass slips and cover glasses. 

General laboratory equipment in addition may be made up 
approximately as follows : 



74 

Several retort stands. 

Balances and weights (The torsion balance is cheap and 
very accurate). 

Glass tubing of various sizes. 

Filter paper. 

Rubber tubing. 

Sealing wax. 

Copper wire ; finer sizes. 

Wire cutting pliers. 

Flat-nosed pilers. 

One glass cutter, of steel roller type. 

Other tools': hammer, saw, etc. 

Glassware : 

Stock reagent bottles, 500-1000 cc, capacity. 

Dropping bottles, for reagents in use. 

Glass jars (mason jars will prove frequently useful). 

Saucers. 

Apparatus. 

Aquaria. Glass aquaria should be had for watching the 
growth in water of plants' and small animals. Ordinary bat- 
tery jars will serve the purpose very well. They should be 
kept covered with a piece of glass, cut to a suitable size. 

Alcohol lamps may be purchased for 20 to 60 cents apiece. 

Cylindrical lamp chimneys, will be found useful for a num- 
ber of purposes. 

Finger-bowls of clear glass. 

One dozen 3 or 4 inch Petre dishes. 

Plant Materials. 

Plants mentioned in the outline may be purchased from any 
one of several supply houses. However, a little self-education, 
coupled with a little energy in hunting, will discover a lot of 
usful material. Many of the aquatic plants may be kept grow- 
ing in aquaria. 



75 



Dealers in Laboratory Supplies. 

Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y. 
Spencer Lens Company, Buffalo, N. Y. 

Arthur H. Thomas Company, 12 and Walnut Streets, Phil- 
adelphia, Pa. 
The Kny-Scheerer Company, 404-410 W. 27 th. St., New 
York N. Y. (This company has for sale botanical and 
zoological materials' fresh or preserved; also microscopic 
slides, in additions to the usual supplies.) 
H. H. Powers, Station A., Lincoln, Neb. (High grade micro- 
scopic slides for zoology.) 
The Scientific Shop, 170 South Clinton St., Chicago, 111. 

(Microscopes and especially microscopic mounts.) 
The Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, Cambridge, 

Mass. 
Supply Department, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods 
Hall, Mass. 
On request, any of the above firms will gladly send a com- 
plete set of catalogues, which will enable you to select intelli- 
gently all that will be required. 



76 



ZOOLOGY. 

By DR. JOHN Y. GRAHAM. 

It is the purpose of this syllabus to furnish the teachers of 
Zoology in the newly organized high schools with a number 
of suggestions as to the conduct of their work in this subject. 
Although details have been given (especially in outlining the 
first exercises) there has been no desire nor intention on the 
part of the writer to prescribe a set of inflexible directions' 
which the teacher should feel bound to follow under all cir- 
cumstances. Only when a considerable degree of initiative is 
left to the teacher can the best results be secured. I willingly 
admit therefore, that there may be conditions under which 
the best results can be obtained by a departure from the mode 
of treatment here suggested. Let me ask, however, that 
the plan outlined be given a fair trial and then let each teacher 
send to the writer any suggestions he may have to otter that 
in his opinion would lead to a better method of treatment. By 
that sort of co-operation we may in the course of time approx- 
imate more and more closely a "best" plan. 

The course of study adopted by this state for the county 
high schools provides for Biology in the second year. The 
time allotted is three exercises each week for the entire year. 
For the present it seems best to divide this time equally be- 
tween the two great sub-divisions of Biology, Zoology and 
Botany. For seasonal and for pedagogical reasons it is sug- 
gested that the first half year be devoted to Zoology. It is 
assumed; that the prevailing custom: relating to laboratory 
subjects will be followed and two of the three weekly periods 
for Zoology will be double periods, that is, one and one-half or 
two hours in length. 

There are certain phases' of biological study for which a 
compound miscroscope is absolutely necessary, but beginners 
can do a great deal of very excellent work with no other means 
of magnification than a simple and inexpensive lens. There 
should be, however, at least one good compound microscope 



77 

in every school. With such an instrument as the Bausch and 
Lomb BH a teacher can demonstrate structures too small to 
be seen with the unaided eye. Not only will such demonstra- 
tions keep up the interest of the students, but it will open to 
them in some measure the wonders of a world unknown to 
them before. The exercises' planned in this outline arc made 
on the assumption that the school is provided with one com- 
pound microscope only. 

The adopted book for this course is Bailey and Coleman's 
"First Course in Biology." The page numbers in the follow- 
ing, unless otherwise stated, refer to the pages of Part II, 
"Animal Biology." 

With these as the given factors I have endeavored to con- 
struct this outline. 

It is not necessary here to enter upon details of laboratory 
plans. Suffice it to say that the work cannot be carried on in 
the ordinary school room with the usual type of desk. A well 
lighted room is necessary, but direct sunlight is to be avoided. 
A room 18x32 with the long side north and with three windows 
five feet wide on the north side will give space enough for one 
V shaped table at each of the north windows. Each of these 
tables would seat seven pupils. Such a room would provide 
space for as large a number as one instructor can handle. For 
details as to the arrangement of sinks, gas table, wall cases, 
lockers for students' outfits', blackboard, service tables, see 
Lloyd and Bigelow's "The Teaching of Biolog'y" and 
Ganong's "The Teaching Botanist." Both of these books are 
indispensable to the teacher. 

The laboratory should be equipped with at least the follow- 
ing apparatus : 

One Compound Microscope, as good as Bausch and Lomb's 
BH with one eyepiece, a 2-3, and a 1-6 objective, a revolving 
nose piece. 

Six dozen non-corrosive glass slides. 

One-half dozen number 2 cover glasses 18 mm circles. 

If the teacher has had training in the making of permanent 
mounts of microscopic objects, he will know what reagents 



78 

to order for this purpose. It is impossible in the space at my 
disposal to go into the subject fully enough to meet the needs 
of one who has had no training in this direction. At any rate 
temporary mounts in water will be sufficient for the purposes 
of this elementary course. 

Two dozen battery jars 6x8 inches for aquaria. 

Five dozen "Hazel" jars of one and one-half liter capacity. 

One dozen crystalization dishes, or better, so called nappys. 
can be substituted from a local dealer. 

Plain finger bowls, at about 30 cents a dozen. Tumblers 
can be secured locally. 

Mosquito netting, lantern globes, and oyster plates for in- 
sect breeding cages, See Duggar's Agriculture. 

Dissecting pans', made in this way : Buy at the hardware 
store, round tin pans 8 1-2 inches in diameter and two inches 
deep, made of one piece of tin, that is without seams. Paint 
them inside and out. When they are dry, place in each of them 
a score or so of BB shot. Distribute the shot evenly around 
the edge. Then pour in enough melted paraffine mixed with 
lamp black to cover the shot. Keep the pan level until cool 
and cool it as quickly as possible. 

One dissecting microscope of the Barnes type for each 
student 50 Watch glasses. 

One package of filter paper in sheets. 

Insect nets, one "Plankton" net. 

Paraffine, lamp black, and shot for pans. 

Towels. 

Section razors. 

Each student should be required to supply himself with 
the text-book. 

A loose leaf note-book of the "Atlas Science Tablet" sort 
made up of covers, drawing papers, note paper. 

A 4th drawing pencil, eraser, and one softer pencil. 

A set of dissecting instruments consisting of at least : One 
pair of needles, one pair of scissors, one pair of forceps, one 
scalpel. 



79 

Chemicals. 

Five gallons of denatured alcohol. 
Five pounds of Formaldehyde. 
One pound of Chloroform. 

Glacial Acetic acid and Potassium Bichromate may be secur- 
ed from the chemical department of the school or the local 
druggist. 

One graduated cylinder 10 cc capacity 
" 100 cc 
" 1500 cc 

Material. 

I am not going to advocate "picketed" biology. It is im- 
portant for us to study living animals' and to learn to think 
of them as acted upon by the world about them and as react- 
ing upon that world. The questions put before the student 
therefore, are not only those concerning the structure of the 
dead animal but also those concerning the actions of the liv- 
ing one and more especially its relation to human interests. 
However, I think it advis'able for every teacher of zoology to 
collect and preserve a certain amount of material before the 
beginning of the school year, to be used only when living ma- 
terial cannot be secured at the time required. 

Grasshoppers : These can always be caught in large numbers 
in late summer. Follow the suggestions in the text as to 
methods of capture. Kill them with chloroform and preserve 
them in 70 per cent alcohol. Do not put too many in one jar. 
After one day pour off the alcohol and replace it with fresh 
spirit of the same strength. Preserve some of them in 3 per 
cent formaline. 

Wasps. Polistes are not hard to get. These are the social 
wasps that build flat cake shaped nests suspended by a slend- 
er stem on the under side of leaves and in similar situations. 
If you can find a nest attached to a fairly smooth surface, pro- 
ceed, in this way. Get a battery jar large enough to cover 
the nest and a piece of tin large enough to serve as a covef 



80 

of the jar. Put the jar over the nest and then quickly push 
the tin across the top of the jar between it and the support 
on which the nest is in such a way as to detach the nest. It 
then falls into the jar. Of course you will keep the jar care- 
fully covered and after withdrawing to safe distance slip in- 
to it a piece of cotton wet with chloroform. In this way you 
can get get not only the nest and a large number of adult 
wasps' but also many eggs and a number of larvae and pupae. 

"Yellow- jackets" — the kind that live in holes in the ground 
can be secured in large numbers by removing the base from 
a fly trap and placing the two upper parts over the entrance 
to the nest. The trap I refer to is the kind consisting of an 
inner cone of wire gauze with a hole at the apex (it will be 
necessary to make this hole a little larger by forcing a lead 
pencil through it), and an outer truncated cone of the same 
material. 

Beetles' are not hard to get in various situations but it is a 
good plan to capture a large number of "June bugs" (the 
fig-eater, Allorhina nitida) at the time they are swarming. 

Earthworms. These may be kept alive in the laboratory 
for a long time by following the suggestions of the text-book, 
page 42. Some of them should be killed and preserved in the 
following manner. First it is necessary to clear the intestine 
of the worm of sand so that the hand Sections called for in 
exercise 21 can be made without injury to the razor. To this 
end make a pulp of filter paper by tearing it into fine shreds 
and then shaking it with water. Put the pulpy mass into a 
tall wide-mouthed bottle, drain off most of the water, and then 
put into it several worms that have been cleaned off all ad- 
hering earthy particles. The next day take the worms out 
of this mass' of pulp and place them in a new mass prepared in 
the same way. After another day the worms will have voided 
all the sand and filled the alimentary canal with filter paper in- 
stead, and they are then ready for the next step. Kill them in 
this way : Put the worms in a low glass dish such as a crys- 
tallization dish or a "nappy," pour on enough water to cover 
them, put in the center of the dish something to support a 



81 

watch glass just above the level of the water. Wet a piece 
of cotton with chloroform, put it in the watch-glass and put 
the watch-glass on the support in the center of the dish. Cover 
the dish with a sheet of glass or some other practically air- 
tight covering. The water will gradually absorb the chloro- 
form vapor and after about six hours' the worms will be mo- 
tionless. Great care must be taken that none of the chloro- 
form is dropped directly into the water. If this should happen 
the worms will squirm about, excrete quantities of slime, and 
thus become almost useless for our purposes. As soon as the 
worms are so thoroughly under the influence of the chloroform 
that they do not move when touched, they should be picked 
up one by one, stretched out straight, and held for a moment 
under the hardening fluid made as follows : 

Potassium bichromate 15 grams 

Water 500 c. c. 

Glacial Acetic Acid 30 c. c. 

The worms should be left in this fluid for 24 or 36 hours. 
Then pour it off and wash the worms in running water for 
one day. After that place them in four per cent, formaline, 
keeping them as straight as possible, put the jar into dark 
closet. A few hours before this material is needed for class 
use wash off the formaline in water or 70 per cent, alcohol. 
In material prepared in this way the various structures can be 
seen in the hand made sections with great distinctness. The 
blood vessels are dark in color, almost black, the nerve cord 
white, the parts of the body wall and intestine are somewhat 
differentiated from one another so that their study under the 
lens is greatly facilitated. 

Mussels can be preserved in 3 or 1 per cent, formaline. It 
is possible by the use of chloral hydrate to kill them with the 
foot extended, but the method is' somewhat uncertain and the 
advantage slight. A wooden wedge may be used to force open 
the shell then the animal may be placed directly in formaline 
leaving the wedge in place. 

6 E 



The study of the vertebrates should be made following the 
suggestions of the text on living or freshly killed specimens. 
It is not possible to secure frogs eggs at all times of the 
year and therefore it is advisable to preserve a series in for- 
maline when they can be collected in February or March. 

I have tried to point out in the following the order of 
treatment and some of the details of the first laboratory exer- 
cises. The three exercises each week should be used thus, two 
double laboratory periods and one recitation. Every labora- 
tory exercise must result in some sort of record in the student's 
note-book. Both written descriptions and drawings should 
be required. These notes should be examined and graded af- 
ter each exercise. This is easy to say but I will admit that 
it is hard to do, for it is the least interesting part of the teach- 
ers work. But it is very important, and if the natural sciences 
are to gain the place in the high school program those of us 
interested in them know they deserve, we will have tc insist 
that the students not only observe the facts and reason cor- 
rectly about them, but also express themselves orally and in 
writing in an acceptable manner. Moreover, if a student wish- 
es to secure college entrance credit in zoology he must submit 
to the examiner's a certified note-book. 

first exercise. 

Subject: I. Nature of organisms. II. Oxidation. Ill 
Cell and Protaplasm. 

I. Place on the laboratory tables as many of the substances 
named on page 1 of Coleman's Animal Biology as can be con- 
veniently obtained. Write on the blackboard the names of 
other substances. Require each student to rule a page in his 
note-book in such a way as to make four columns and write 
at the head of the columns, organic, inorganic, used for food, 
not used for food. Let the student write the names of each 
substance in its proper column and writes the answers to the 
questions in the text. 

II. Let each student carry out the simple experiments sug- 
gested on pages 4 and 5 and record in his note book what he 
did and exactly what happened. 



83 

III. The teacher should show under the compound micro- 
scope, (1) some of the hairs scrapped from a tomato vine or 
a water melon vine. This will show circulating- protoplasm. 
(Of course Amoeba is excellent for this purpose if available.) 
(2) One of the ovarioles of a grasshopper will show egg 
cells — large ones loaded with yolk at the attached end and 
smaller ones at the free thread like end. These preparations 
should be mounted in water and covered with a cover glass. 
Require a record of these demonstrations. 

Suggest that each student bring one or more living grass- 
hoppers to the next exercise. 

second exercise. 

Subject : The Behavior of the Grasshopper and its Struct- 
ure. 

I. Let each student record in his note book, where and 
when he found the grasshopper, the weather conditions, how 
far it could fly, how far it could jump, does it show any re- 
semblance to its haunt, etc. Each student should then 
be furnished with a grasshopper that has been kept in the 
laboratory several days without feeding. The most conven- 
ient way to give out this material is in low glass dishes 
covered with mosquito netting. First, watch the breathing 
motions. Describe this action. Feed it with clover. Describe 
this. Dip a broomstraw into weak acid and bring it near the 
head of the insect. How does it behave ? 

II. Structure. For this part of the study it is well to 
have a dead specimen in addition to the living one. Let each 
student write in his note-book answers to all the questions on 
pages 63, 64, and 65 (except those implying a comparison 
with the crawfish, which should be omitted for the present), 
and make all the drawings called for. At the close of the 
period each student should be furnished with small glass jar 
containing 70 per cent alcohol, in which he should place ma- 
terial that may be of further use later. First, of course, kill 
any living grasshoppers with chloroform. Refer to bulletins 
of the department of Agriculture on locusts. 



84 

THIRD ExKRCISE. 

Recitation on the foregoing. Demonstrate with the com- 
pound microscope the objects suggested on page 69. Require 
a record of the demonstration. 

fourth exercise. 

Subject: Structure of the grasshopper continued. Pages 
65 and 68 inclusive. After studying the external features cut 
off the wings of a dead grasshopper and with the fine pointed 
scissors make a cut through the body wall a little to one side 
of the mid-dorsal line, pull the cut edges apart, and pin them 
fast to the wax bottom of the dissecting pan. Then gently 
pour water into the pan — enough to cover the dissection. 
Study the food tube, breathing organs, reproductive system. 
The heart is a very slender tube and remains attached to the 
body wall. Look for it on the larger of the two flaps. Study 
pages 76-78 inclusive. The nervous system will be seen after 
removal of the food tube. It is probable that its study will 
have to be deferred until the next time. Suggest that stu- 
dent bring to the next exercise as many of the "kindred of 
the grasshopper" as possible. See pages 70 and 71. 

i 
fifth exercise. 

I. Report on insects collected. Require notes on where 
found, behavior, food, and as to whether or not the are harm- 
ful or beneficial to human interests. 

II. Repeat the dissection of the grasshopper (furnish an 
uninjured specimen). Review rapidly the points gone over 
before and then study the nervous system and sense organs. 
Pages 78 and 79. 

sixth exercise. 

Quiz on the foregoing. Bring out the facts of development 
and economic significance. See bulletins' and reference books. 



85 

seventh exercise. 

Development of the mosquito. I Egg raft of Culex, 2. Two 
or three stages of larvae. 5. Pupae. Students should draw 
each one of these stages, study their movements and methods 
of feeding. One baterry jar aquarium for each group of 
four to six students will probably show a sufficient number 
of stages. Each jar should be covered with a piece of cheese 
cloth. A very efficient means of killing the mosquitoes is this : 
wet a small piece of cotton with chloroform and place it on 
top of the cheese cloth and cover the whole jar with a sheet 
of glass. Require reports to be given at the next exercise 
on the number of places in which mosquitoes may be found 
breeding. Direct attention to sagging eave-troughs and down- 
spouts stopped with leaves. 

eighth exercise. 

Reports on mosquitoes. Of course, stress should be laid on 
the relation on these insects' to malaria and yellow fever. See 
bulletins and Howard's book on the Mosquito. Let the stu- 
dents arrange breeding cages of the type shown in Duggar's 
Agriculture, Fig. 166. Place in them cocoons', potato-beetles, 
caterpillars "spittle-bugs," etc. 

ninth exercise. 

Recitation on the foregoing and conference on note books. 

tenth exercise. 

Follow out the "illustrative studies" pages 87 et seq., sub- 
stituting in every case possible insects brought in by rhe stu- 
dents for the pictures. Note suggestions on collecting, page 

72. 

eleventh exercise. 

Continue the illustrative studies. 



86 

twelfth exercise. 

Review of insects. Require reports' next time on spiders. 
Where found, action of spider when alarmed, when insect is 
caught in web. 

THIRTEENTH ExERCISE- 

Report on spiders. If a mangy cat or dog can be found, 
demonstrate to the class with the compound microscope the 
mange mite. Refer to Duggar's Agriculture and bulletins on 
cattle tick. 

Exercises 14 to 18 inclusive should be devoted to the study 
of the crawfish. Require notes and drawings according to 
the suggestions of the book, pages 51-61 inclusive. 

NINETEENTH EXERCISE. 

Have on hand as large a collection of Arthropods as possi- 
ble for example, a crawfish, a crab, a shrimp, a myriapod, a 
spider, a pill bug, various insects. By questions develop the 
meaning of bi-lateral symmetry, body segment, segmented 
limbs, which have no antennae, which one pair, which two pair, 
which are gill breathing, which air breathing. Further re- 
ports on breeding cages. 

Exercises 20, 21, and 22 should be devoted to a study of the 
earthworm. Both living and preserved material should be 
issued. In addition to the usual dissection indicated in the text, 
the following very instructive supplementary exercises should 
be carried out. Take one of the hardened worms, cut off the 
anterior end, say the first 18 segments, hold it between the 
thumb and index finger of the left hand and then cut it with 
a short razor into its right and left halves. Place the pieces 
in a watch glass in water and study the cut surface with a 
lens. Compare this with a dissection made from above and 
with figure 72. Great care should be exercised in making the 
cut. It is important that the razor pass exactly from the mid- 
dorsal to the mid-ventral line and that the cut be made at one 
stroke. 2. Take another piece about an inch long and divide 



it by a horizontal cut into a dorsal and ventral half. 3. Cut a 
few transverse sections from the remaining part of the worm. 
Require a record in the form of carefully made drawings and 
notes. Be sure that the student correlates the sections and the 
first dissection. 

TWENTY-THIRD EXERCISE. 

By this time the aquarium will perhaps yield specimens of 
small fresh water segmented worms belonging to the family 
naididae. Their method of a sexual reproduction should be 
noted. 

Planarians can sometimes" be obtained in this way : place 
pieces of fresh meat among .the water plants of a slow running 
brook or at the margin of a pond. After about two hours 
scores (if you are lucky) of Puanaria will be found adhering 
to the under surface of the meat. The student should give at- 
tention to the behavior of the animal and its more general 
characteristics. Find the eyes, the mouth. Occasionally the 
pharynx will be protruded. Watch the animal feeding on the 
sides of the aquarium. 

TWENTY-FOURTH EXERCISE. 

Practical work on the parasitic worms must of necessity be 
limited in a course of this sort. It is possible but perhaps 
not advisable to get from the butcher a hog's liver containing 
what they call boils. This and muscles called "measly" are 
likely to contain the cysticercus stage of tape-worms. This 
may be omitted, but what I am to mention now should certain- 
ly be done : place in the hands of each student a copy of the 
circular entitled "Soil Pollution" issued by the Rockefeller 
Sanitary Commission. These may be obtained free of charge 
by writing to the above Commission, 811 Union Trust Build- 
ing, Washington, D. C. The lessons in regard to sanitation, 
the importance of cleaning the back yard and keeping it clean, 
the importance of clean food, clean water, and clean air for 
for man and beast can not be too forcibly driven home. The 
co-operation of some local physician might be secured at this 
point. 



88 

TW£NTY-SIXTH ExERCISS. 

Hydra may sometimes be obtained by using a fine plankton 
net in quiet waters. This method is worth trying. I have 
had better success, however, by gathering submerged objects 
and carrying them in water into the laboratory and then dis- 
tributing them in aquarium jars. A careful examination the 
next day may reveal hydras attached to the surface film or 
the sides of the glass or to the submerged objects. Use small 
aquarium jars. A reading glass is of great service in making 
the examination. A good study that can be carried out with- 
out a compound microscope is this : place the hydra in a watch 
glass with a small mosquito larva or a "water flea," (a Baph- 
nia or Cyclops). To see the hydra paralyze and ingest its 
prey always excites interest. 

It seems necessary on account of the limited time allotted 
to this subject and the technical difficulties involved to omit 
further studies of the Coelenterates as well as the Protozoa, 
Sponges and Echinoderms. 

Exercises 26-29 inclusive, should be devoted to a study of 
the Mollusca. The best material for this work is found in the 
fresh-water mussel. If this is not to be found locally, it can 
be purchased at a small cost from dealers in laboratory mate- 
rials. Slugs and pond snails can always be secured. The lat- 
ter often lay eggs in the aquaria. Let the class keep several 
sets of them under observation for some time. Require of 
each student a record in his note book as to time necessary for 
development. Call for reports on the economic significance of 
the mollusks, e. g., Oyster fisheries, Dangers from Oysters 
"fattened" in Polluted Waters, Pearl-button Industry, Losses 
Caused by Ship-worms, etc. See encyclopedias, and bulletins 

The rest of the course about 24 exercises should be devoted 
to a study of the Vertebrates. The material needed will be 
fishes (minnows or perch), frogs, lizards, birds (English 
Sparrows), mice or rats, but the course should not be limited 
to these animals, nor should it be a course in comparative 
anatomy. The suggestions in the text will probably be found 
sufficient in general. At every point emphasis should be laid 



89 

on the relation of the group under consideration to human 
interests. Here especially will Hodge's books be found help- 
ful, Nature Study and Life and a new book soon to< appear on 
applied biology. Without developing any sentimentality let 
the students gain a respect for, and a rational sympathy with 
life in all its forms. Attention should be called to the enor- 
mous losses due to rats and mice, to the danger to public 
health from rats as a carrier of the bubonic plague, of the 
probability that this will become a question of importance to 
this state in the near future when the Panama Canal is com- 
pleted. If adequate reference books are at hand call for re- 
ports on such topics as these : Food Value of Fishes, Fish 
in Relation to Aquatic Insects, The Usefulness of Toads, 
Lizards, Snakes, and Birds in holding Insect-pests in Check. 
Why not Domesticate more Animals, Mutual Aid among An- 
imals (see writings of Kropokin and Thompson and Geddes), 
Behavior of Wild Animals. 

The teacher should have as many of the standard works on 
Zoology as can be secured. Some of the most necessary 
ones I have listed below. 

Lloyd and Bigelow, The Teaching of Biology in the Second- 
ary School, Longmans, Green, and Co., 91 and 93 Fifth 
Avenue, New York. 
Osborn, Economic Zoology, The Macmilan Co., New York. 
Linville and Kelly, A Text-book in General Zoology, Ginn 

and Company, Boston. 
Jordan, Kellogg, and Heath, Animals, D. Appleton and Co., 

New York. 
Parker and Haswell, A Text-book of Zoology, two volumes, 

The Macmillan Company, New York. 
Galloway, First Course in Zoology, P. Blackiston's Son & Co. 

1012 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. 
Comstock, A Manual of the Study of Insects, Comstock Pub- 
lishing Co., Ithaca, New York. 
Davenport, Introduction to Zoology, The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 
Thompson, Outlines of Zoology. 
Hodge, Nature Study and Life, Ginn and Company, Boston. 



90 



PHYSICS. 

By PROFESSOR L. N. DUNCAN. 

Physics should come in the third year of the high school 
course and should be given four recitation periods per week 
for the entire year for class room and laboratory work. 

The course in high school physics should embrace : 

(1) — A careful study of one of the best high school texts 
on physics. 

(2) — As many experiments should be made as possible in 
connection with the class room work in order to illustrate the 
text. 

(3) — Each pupil should be required to perform at least 
thirty-five experiments where laboratory equipment is" avail- 
able. 

In the class room, high school physics should be taught 
largely from the standpoint of natural philosophy. The 
pupils should be made familiar with the fundamental physical 
laws of nature. The best results will be obtained if the obser- 
vation and spirit of inquiry of the student is developed. This 
is best done by starting with some of the simple phenomena 
and showing the pupil by questions and explanations' the rea- 
sons for the changes and the laws governing them. In the 
same manner the pupil should be led step by step into the 
larger and more difficult laws and problems of physics. 

In connection with the lessons, it should always be the 
purpose of the teacher to have some simple experiments to aid 
the pupils to a clear understanding of the text. If the appa- 
ratus is not at hand and it is impossible to make the experiment 
in the class room, drawings on the blackboard are a great 
aid in helping the pupils to understand the explanations. It is 
a most excellent practice to have the pupils go to the board and 
make drawings to bring out and impress upon their minds the 
important facts of the lesson. Liberal use should be made of 



91 



these drawings in the class even if the experiments are con- 
ducted in the presence of the pupils. The careful drawings 
of the apparatus with which an experiment is made is an ex- 
cellent practice for the class. 

It should be the purpose of every high school to have as 
thoroughly equipped physical laboratory as possible and to 
require each student to perform at least thirty-five experi- 
ments in this laboratory independent of the work in the text. 
A carefully selected list of such experiments is given below. 
Of course this list may be varied to suit the teacher. 

Each pupil should keep a special note-book for physics 
bearing a record of the work in physics and nothing else. In 
making a record of an experiment performed the following 
outline may be used : 
Experiment No Date 

Object of the Experiment. 

Under this heading the main purposes of the experiment 
should be clearly and concisely stated. 

Apparatus. 

A short description of the equipment necessary in carrying 
on the experiment should be given. It is best to have a dia- 
gram or drawing showing the different parts of the appara- 
tus. This drawing should be insisted upon when it is pos- 
sible for the pupil to make it. 

Observations. 

Each step in proceeding with the work should be recorded 
here from the setting up of the apparatus until the work is 
concluded. A brief description of how each part of the work 
is done and how the results were obtained is a necessary part 
of the experiment if the pupil is to clearly understand the work 
and draw the proper conclusions. In all cases where there are 
a series of readings or in any case where there are a number 
of figures the results should be carefully tabulated. 



92 



Calculations. 



After the experiment has been finished and the data record- 
ed, all necessary calculations should be carefully made and the 
work checked to avoid any errors. 



General Conclusions. 

Each pupil should be required to write an account of the 
entire experiment, describing each step and drawing nil con- 
clusions. It is very important that the pupils write down what 
they learned from the experiment and if it is what was expect- 
ed or not. . The reasons for success or failure should be given. 

These note books should be an important part of the phys- 
ics course. They should be carefully looked over l.y the teach- 
er and all errors noted for the pupils. 

Every effort possible should be made by the teacher to en- 
courage the pupils towards original work. Frequently when 
the laboratory equipment is limited, pupils may be induced 
to devise some simple apparatus to be used to develop some 
very important principle. The simpler the apparatus and the 
more it can be devised by the pupils the more effective will 
be the teaching. The teacher should realize that there are a 
large number of experiments that can be made with the simple 
material at hand. 

In all the work in physics the teacher should strive to de- 
velop clear and accurate thinking on the part of the pupils. 
If physics is taught in the high school mainly with a view to 
making the students familiar with the simple and fundamental 
physical laws of nature, with their application to every day 
affairs, it may be made one of the most valuable subjects of 
the course in developing observation, thought and a desire to 
know. 

For information in regard to carrying out these experi- 
ments the teacher should consult one of the physical laborato- 
ry manuals. 



93 



Some Experiments. 

1. Measure dimensions of a rectangular block. 

2. Compare the metric and English units of length. 

3. Find the volume of a small solid insoluable substance. 

4. Find the density of marble. 

.5. The work necessary in drawing a mass up an inclined 
plane is equal to the work necessary to raise the same 
mass vertically to the same height. 

6. Prove in the law of the lever that the power multiplied 

by the length of the power arm is equal to the weight 
multiplied by the weight arm. Work this for first, 
second and third class levers. 

7. Find the advantage of the movable pully. 

8. Show how air may be compressed. 

9. Show how water may be made to expand by heat. 

10. Show the cohesion of water at its surface. 

11. Show the tension of a soap solution. 

12. Illustrate the action of two simultaneous forces acting 

upon a movable body at an angle of 45 degrees. 

13. Find the centre of gravity of a body. 

14. Prove the laws of the pendulum. 

15. Show the relation between depth and the pressure in a 

given area of fluid. 

16. Find the relation between weight of a solid and the 

weight of the displaced water. 

17. Show the relation between the weights of equal volumes 

of wood and iron. 

18. Find the specific gravity of wood, iron and glass. 

19. Find the specific gravity of salt and sugar. 

20. Bring two liquids of different specific gravities together 

with a siphon without mixing the liquids. 

21. Test the boiling and freezing points of the thermometer. 

22. Test the effect of pressure on boiling point of water. 

23. Test the effect of melting and freezing substances. 

24. Find the melting point of a substance ; the freezing point. 

25. Study wave motion by means of water. 

26. Test sound wave lengths by use of tuning fork and open 

tubes. 



94 

27. Study the distribution of light. 

28. Test the power of different sources of light. 

29. Study images in mirrors. 

30. Effect of a prism on a ray of light. 

31. Study refraction and reflection in water. 

32. Study static electricity by use of pith balls. 

33. Find the field of a magnet. 

34. Determine the effect of induction and conduction in elec- 

tricity. 

35. Prepare and study the simple electrical cell. 

Physical Apparatus for a Class of Ten, 

Approximate 

Cost. 

1 micrometer caliper $ 4 00 

1 doz. reagent bottles, glass-stoppered, 4 oz. 1 85 

5 Florence flasks, 250 cc 40 

10 student lamp chimneys 50 

y 2 lb. German silver wire, No. 28 30 

2 lbs. of brass wire, Nos. 22 and 28 1 00 

3 lbs. of cotton insulated copper wire, Nos. 18 and 24_ 2 50 

2 lbs. of iron wire, Nos. 28 and 32 1 50 

1 lb. of copper wire. No. 24 90 

1 iron, soldering, and 1 lb. solder 75 

1 gross test tubes, 6 in. x Y\ in 2 88 

5 National trip balances 27 00 

10 battery jars, white glass, 4 in. x 5 in 2 50 

Mechanics. 

2 boards, composition of forces 4 00 

6 balances, spring, 2 kg 2 40 

10 balls, iron, 1 in. in diameter 80 

10 balls, wood, 1 in. in diameter 1 00 

5 wagons for inclined planes 5 00 

12 glass marbles, Y^ in 12 



95 



Hydrodynamics and Pneumatics. 

2 apparatus, Boyle's law 4 00 

1 pump, air, exhaust and condense 22 50 

10 cans, overflow, nickel plated 6 00 

10 blocks, rectangular, ix8x 8cm., hard wood 25 

20 tubes, thistle, 12 in. long, 1-8 in. bore 10 

5 glass funnels, 3y 2 in 14 

1 doz. test tubes, 6 in. x Y\ in 72 

2 lbs. tubing, barometer, 11 mm. bore, heavy 55 

2 lbs. tubing, thermometer, 11 mm. bore, heavy 1 00 

5 lbs. tubing, soft glass, 3 mm. bore 4C 

1 set equilibrium tubes 85 

1 glass model of lifting pump 1 75 

1 glass model of force pump 2 00 

1 U-shaped tube to show the principle of hydrostatic 

press __ 25 

1 glass model of hydraulic press 2 00 

1 set of Pascal's vases 4 25 

1 demonstration hydrometer 20 

1 glass hydrometer for both light and heavy liquids- _ 1 50 

6 specific gravity bottles, 2 oz 60 

1 water hammer 80 

1 plain glass siphon 25 

1 glass tube with bulb to show expansive power of air 15 

1 thin rubber football 1 00 

Heat. 

1 model steam engine 3 50 

5 air thermometers 1 25 

5 apparatus "A," low form with screw top 12 50 

1 chemical thermometer, Centigrade 1 60 

1 condenser for distillation 2 25 

1 brass ring and ball to illustrate expansion 1 25 

1 compound bar for showing unequal dilation of dif- 
ferent metals 1 25 

1 palm glass 50 



96 



Light. 

5 plane mirrors, 6 in. x 2 in 75 

5 cylindrical mirrors 2 50 

10 lenses, double convex, 10 cm. focus 1 00 

1 specimen of Iceland spar . 50 

10 prisms, glass, 3 in. x 1 in 4 00 

1 Newton color disc and 5 other color discs 1 00 

Sound. 

5 tuning forks, middle C 75 

1 diapason __ 3 50 

1 sonometer __ 5 00 

1 heavy bass bow 1 50 

1 organ pipe with piston 4 25 

1 siren disc and attachment 4 00 

5 tubes, resonance, 18 in. x l l / 2 in 2 25 

Electricity. 

10 bar magnets, 6 in. long 2 00 

5 compasses, needle Yi in. long 75 

5 pith balls and rod of sealing wax 30 

1 glass friction rod 40 

5 galvonometers __ 17 50 

1 electro magnet, 4 in 1 20 

1 motor, Porter No. 2 - 7 50 

5 electric bells 3 00 

1 catskin __ 75 

1 horseshoe magnet 1 00 

1 Geissler tube, 6 in 75 

1 model dynamo 4 00 

1 sounder and key together on iron base 3 25 

1 yard of Japanese silk 50 

1 electrophorus __ 2 00 

10 strips of copper, \ l / 2 x 10 cm., wire attached 4 00 

20 strips of zinc 75 



97 

5 cells, Daniell's complete 12 00 

1 apparatus for decomposing water 2 50 

1 Toepler-Holtz machine, 12 x 11 plates 26 00 

1 lb. fine iron turnings 10 

Miscellaneous. 

1 set of 6 in. cork borers 1 00 

5 alcohol lamps ' 50 

25 asbestos sheets 45 

25 iron gauzes 65 

1 tinner's shares, 12 in. 2 25 

1 gross of corks, assorted sizes 1 50 

2 lbs. of rubber stoppers, 1 and 2 holes 2 25 

10 five-inch files, 5 round and 5 triangular 45 

10 Mohr's pinchcocks 10 

10 screw pinchcocks 30 

10 graduates, metric cylinder, 100 cc. to 1 cc 50 

1 hydrometer, specific gravity scale, 7 to 1.85 1 40 

5 sets weights, metric 500 g. to 1 g. in wooden block 3 00 



7 E 



98 



CHEMISTRY. 



By PROFESSOR B. B. ROSS. 

The course of study for County High Schools in this State 
provides that Chemistry may be taken in the fourth year of 
the course, five periods per week during the first half year and 
three hours per week during second half year. As two labora- 
tory periods are usually rated as equivalent to one recitation 
period, it will be found advantageous to use three periods per 
week for lecture and recitation work, while for the remaining 
two periods, allowed by the course of study, two laboratory 
periods of double length can be substituted, if the necessary 
time is available. 

A portion of the time of three periods allotted for lecture 
and recitation purposes should be employed by the instructor 
in demonstration work, as many experiments as practicable 
being performed before the class, while the teacher can also 
use the blackboard to good advantage in pointing out to the 
class, by means of appropriate equations, the chemical changes 
connected with the experiments that have been employed, for 
illustration purposes. 

In the selection of experiments to be performed before the 
class, as well as for directions and suggestions as to carrying 
them out, the hand-book prepared by the authors of the adopt- 
ed text-book will be found to be of material assistance to the 
teacher, and it is suggested that every instructor provide him- 
self with one of these hand-books. 

Laboratory work at the present time is rightly considered 
to be a practically indispensable adjunct to a properly conduct- 
ed course in elementary general chemistry and it is highly de- 
sirable that at least a limited laboratory equipment be secured 
with as little delay as possible. 

The Department of Mechanical Drawing of the Alabama 
Polytechnic Institute has prepared designs and cuts of single 
laboratory desks, which will accommodate two students each, 
and also of double desks capable of accommodating four stu- 



99 

dents each. These desks can be purchased or constructed at 
quite moderate prices and will be found to answer quite well 
for use in the laboratories of secondary schools. Plans of 
these desks are appended herewith. 

A number of the large apparatus and chemical supply 
houses of the country make a specialty of supplying small se- 
lected sets of apparatus and chemicals with a view to meeting 
the requirements both of chemical lecture rooms, and labora- 
tories of high schools and an equipment adequate for the needs 
of an elementary course can be secured for a very moderate 
sum. 

Several lists of apparatus and chemicals, with prices of same, 
are appended herewith, and the names and addresses of a num- 
ber of apparatus supply houses are also given. 

By improvising it is even possible to dispense with some of 
the items on these apparatus lists and it is surprising what a 
large number of striking and instructive experiments may be 
performed upon the lecture desk by the use of a very limited 
outfit. 

Such simple pieces of apparatus as filter stands, test-tube 
racks, test-tube holders, etc., may be constructed by the stu- 
dents themselves, under the direction of the instructor, and 
the expense of the equipment can thus be somewhat decreased, 
while at the same time, the student is directing some of his en- 
ergies along useful, practical lines. 

While the purpose of a course in chemistry in a high school 
is to some extent disciplinary, the instructor should endeavor 
to inculcate in the pupil a due appreciation of the importance 
of the science in its relation to the processes of nature, to every 
day life and to the agricultural and industrial development of 
the country. 

If the subject is properly presented to the pupil, its study 
should prove a most important agency in enabling him to ob- 
serve accurately, to report clearly the results of his observa- 
tions and to draw correct conclusions therefrom. 

It is important that the student should make use of the note- 
book both in the lecture room and in the laboratory, and the 
instructor should examine note-books at regular intervals in 



100 

order to ascertain whether or not the notes are properly enter- 
ed, while at the same time the teacher can form a good idea as 
to whether the pupil has a proper grasp of the subject or is 
drawing intelligent conclusions from the results of his observa- 
tions. 

Above all, it is most essential that the teacher take care that 
the work does not become mechanical, but on the contrary, he 
must see to it that the student thinks in carrying out the 
laboratory experimentss assigned him. Each experiment should 
have a definite object or purpose and should be performed by 
the student with this object or purpose in view. 

It will hardly be practicable to give the student any experi- 
ments except those of a qualitative character, although after 
the course has become well established, it may not be amiss to 
permit some of the more proficient students to undertake a 
few of the simple quantitative experiments given in the text. 
At least forty experiments or exercises should be undertaken 
during the course of the session and it is possible that even a 
larger number may be satisfactorily carried out. It is to be 
noted, however, that a number of different operations or sub- 
experiments are, in many cases, included under the head of a 
single experiment in the text-book, so that a single exercise 
may require a considerable amount of mental application as 
well as of laboratory manipulation, affording, in a single 
laboratory period, much useful practical and mental training 
to the student. 

The following list of apparatus for a cla.-^ of five in labora- 
tory work in chemistry is reproduced from Hand-book No. 22, 
of the New York Educational Department. The prices of 
much of the glass ware are evidently based on duty free quota- 
tions, of which educational institutions can avail themselves. 
In fact, quite a considerable saving can be effected by import- 
ing laboratory apparatus duty free, though the order in such 
cases should be placed several months in advance of the open- 
ing of the school year. 

A list of chemicals given in the same publication is also given 
below, though from this list are excluded such chemicals as are 
not needed in the experiments given in the adoped text-book, 



101 

while a supplementary list giving such additional chemicals as 
are used in the experiments referred to is also presented here- 
with. 

Still another list, designated as "Chemical Set No. 2" is 
particularly designed for use for lecture room purposes and 
one of the large apparatus and supply houses proposes to furn- 
ish this set of apparatus for $25.00, F. O. B., at point of ship- 
ment. 

The following is a list of some of the principal apparatus 
and chemical supply houses : 

Eimer and Amend, New York, Arthur H. Thomas Com- 
pany. Philadelphia, Bausch and Lomb Company, Rochester, 
N. Y., Central Scientific Company, Chicago, 111., Henry Heil 
Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo. 



Apparatus for a Glass of Five in Chemistry, 

Approximate 
Cost. 

5 shallow agate pans, 1 qt $ 75 

1 balance, horn pan 8 in. beam 1 50 

5 blow pipes, 8 in 30 

5 Bunsen burners or alcohol lamps 95 

5 Burette clamps 1 70 

5 clamps for test tubes 40 

1 set of cork borers, 1-6 75 

2 round files 15 

2 triangular files 19 

1 glass cutter 11 

5 iron gauze, asbestos center. 5 in. x 5 in 55 

5 cylinder graduates, 100 cc 1 90 

1 cylinder graduate, 500 cc 75 

5 filter paper boxes, 4 in. in diameter 45 

5 Mohr's pinchcocks, medium 45 

6 porcelain crucibles with cover No. 00 54 

12 porcelain evaporating dishes, No. 00 1 08 

5 mortars, 3*4, with pestle 95 



102 

1 lb. 2 hole rubber stoppers No. 7 1 69 

1 lb. 1 hole rubber stoppers, to fit 4 in. U tube 1 69 

1 lb. 1 hole rubber stoppers, to fit 6 in. U tube 1 69 

10 ft. rubber tubing, 3-16 in., antimony 52 

15 ft. rubber tubing, y A 1 35 

5 deflagrating spoons, ^2-in. bowl 38 

5 iron stands, 3 rings 2 45 

10 test tube brushes 49 

5 test tube racks 27 

6 triangles, pipe stem, small (to fit No. 00 crucible) __ 30 

2 thermometers, chemical, 0-250 degrees C 2 40 

1 set of weights, 100 g. down to 1 mg 3 40 

\]/\ lb. spool copper, wire, No. 30 21 

1 Coddington lens 1 35 

10 beakers, 200 cc 1 00 

3 sets of reagent bottles, 125 cc, 4 oz., NPLOH, HCL 

H*SCX HNOa, KOH, NaOH 3 57 

2 bottles, N. M., ]/ 2 gal 70 

12 bottles, W. M., 6 oz 74 

12 bottles, W. M., 8 oz 87 

2 burettes, 50 cc. grad. to 1-10 cc 2 62 

5 Colbalt plates, 2 in. square 15 

5 cylinders, 2 in. x 12 in 1 70 

15 Florence flasks, 250 cc 1 20 

15 Erlenmeyer flasks, 4 oz 90 

6 funnels, 60 degrees, 2 l / 2 in 48 

6 tubulated retorts, 150 cc 1 38 

500 gm. glass rods, 3-16 in 30 

200 test tubes, 6 in. x 5-8 in 2 56 

10 test tubes, 6 in. x 5-8 in., hard glass 1 20 

5 U tubes, 4 in. arm 55 

5 U tubes, 6 in. arm 60 

500 gm. tubing, soft glass, 1-8 in. diam 30 

50 vials, with cork, height 80 mm., diam. 25 mm 1 13 

10 watch glasses, 2 in. in diameter 15 

500 glass beads 75 



103 



Reagents. 

1 lb. alum, potash, pure crystals 23 

1 oz. aluminum chloride, pure 07 

2 lbs. alcohol, 95% 1 02 

1 lb. ammonium carbonate C. P 35 

1 lb. ammonium chloride C. P 32 

4 lbs. ammonium hydrate 70 

1 oz. ammonium nitrate, pure cryst 07 

1 oz. ammonium suphate, pure cryst 05 

2 lbs. barium chloride 35 

1 oz. barium nitrate C. P 23 

1 oz. calcium chlorid, fused, white caskes 07 

1 oz. calcium nitrate C. P 07 

1 lb. calcium oxid 12 

1 lb. carbon bisulphide, pure 16 

5 lbs. charcoal blocks 20 

1 lb. charcoal wood, powd 08 

1 oz. cobalt nitrate C. P 18 

1 oz. copper sulphate C. P 09 

1 lb. hydrogen peroxide C. P 50 

1 lb. iron filing, clean, fine 08 

1 lb. iron sulphate (com'l) 06 

6 lbs. hydrochloric acid, C. P. Sp.Gr. 1.20 72 

1 lb. lead, shot No. 10 14 

1 lb. lead nitrate C. P 26 



y2 qr. litmus paper, red 40 

Y2 qr. litmus paper, blue 40 

1 lb. magnanese dioxide 08 

8 ozs. mercury oxid, red 68 

1 oz. nickel nitrate C. P 11 

7 lbs. nitric acid, C. P. Sp. Gr. 1.42 1 00 

2 ozs. phosphorous red 15 

2 oz. Phosphorous, yellow 15 

1 oz. potassium bromid C. P 07 

2 lbs. potassium chlorate cryst 32 

1 lb. potassium ferricyanid, com'l 63 

1 oz. potassium ferro cyanid C. P 07 



104 

2 lbs. potassium hydroxid C. P 85 

1 oz. potassium iodide, cryst 25 

1 lb. potassium nitrate, cryst 12 

1 oz. potassium permanganate C. P 07 

1 oz. silver nitrate C. P. cryst 60 

1 oz. sodium metal 15 

1 lb. sodium bicarbonate 06 

1 lb. sodium biborate, powd 15 

1 lb. sodium carbonate, dry 06 

2 lbs. sodium hydroxid 82 

2 lbs. sodium hyposulphite 13 

1 lb. sodium nitrate cryst 08 

1 oz. strontium nitrate C. P. 07 

2 lbs. sulphur flowers 13 

9 lbs. sulphuric acid, Sp. Gr. 1.84 C. P 95 

2 lbs. zinc, mossy 30 

1 lb. zinc sticks C. P 29 

Supplementary list of chemicals (to be added to the preced- 
ing list in order to supply the chemicals needed in the labora- 
tory experiments of the adopted text.) 

Aluminum foil, 1 oz $ 20 

Alminum Sulphate, C. P. 1 oz 10 

Antimony, 1 oz., C. P 15 

Antimony, tri-oxide, C. P., 1 oz 10 

Antimony, tri-chloride, pure cryst., 1 oz 20 

Barium, per-oxide, C. P., 2 oz 10 

Bismuth, C. P., 1 oz 40 

Bismuth, Nitrate, C. P., 1 oz 20 

Charcoal, Animal, powd., 1 lb 10 

Cadmium Sulphate, 1 oz., C. P 20 

Calcium Sulphate (Plaster Paris), 1 lb 10 

Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum cryst.), 1 lb 10 

Copper turnings, 1-2 lb. 20 

Copper Nitrate, C. P., 2 oz 15 

Ferrous Sulphide, 2 lbs. 36 

Ferric chloride, cryst. pure, 1-4 lb 10 



105 

Grape Sugar, 1 lb 10 

Lead oxide (litharge), 1 lb. 15 

Marble (lumps), 1 lb 05 

Magnesium ribbon, 1 oz. 45 

Magnesite, 1 lb. 10 

Magnesium, cholride, C. P., 2 oz 10 

Magnesium Sulphate, C. P., 1-4 lb 10 

Mercuric Chloride, C. P., 1 oz . 15 

Phosphoric Acid (syrupy), 1-4 lb. 15 

Potassium Chromate, C. P., 2 oz. 10 

Potassium Chloride, C. P., 2 oz 05 

Potassium Sulphate, C. P., 2 oz 05 

Potassium Sulphocyanate, C. P., 1 oz 10 

Potassium Bitartrate, C. P., 2 oz 20 

Sodium Acetate, C. P., 2 oz 10 

Sodium Carbonate, C. P., cryst., 1-2 lb 10 

Sodium Nitrite, C. P., 2 oz 20 

Sodium Sulphate, cryst. C. P., 1-4 lb 10 

Sodium Phosphate, C. P., 2 oz 10 

Strontium chloride, C. P., 2 oz 10 

Tin- granulated, 1-4 lb. 20 

Tin. bi-chloride (stannic) cryst., 2 oz 10 

Zinc Sulphate, C. P. cryst, 2 oz 05 

Platinum wire. 2 grams, No. 29 prices variable. 



106 
Chemical Set No. 2, Cost, $25.00 



y 2 lb. Acetic Acid. 

1 lb. Hydrochloric Acid. 

1 lb. Nitric Acid. 

1 oz. Oxalic Acid. 

2 lbs. Sulphuric Acid. 
1 oz. Tartaric Acid. 

1 oz. Ammonium Carbonate. 

2 oz. Ammonium Chloride. 
Yz lb. Ammonium Hydrate. 

1 oz. Ammonium Nitrate. 

1 oz. Ammonium Sulphide. 
y 2 pt. Alcohol Methyl. 

2 oz. Alum. 

2 oz. Animal Charcoal. 
1 oz. Antimony. 
1 oz. Arsenic Trioxide. 
1 oz. Barium Chloride. 
1 oz. Barium Nitrate. 

1 oz. Borax. 

)/\ lb. Calcium Carbonate (marble), 

2 oz. Calcium Chloride. 
2 oz. Calcium Fluoride. 

l /\ lb. Calcium Sulphate. 
1 oz. Carbon Bisulphide. 

1 oz. Cobalt Nitrate. 

4 oz. Copper Sulphate. 

2 oz. Ether. 

2 oz. Ferrous Suphate. 

5 oz. Ferrous Sulphide. 

]/ 2 oz. Gall Nuts (Powdered). 
1-8 oz. Gun Cotton. 
l /\ oz. Iodine. 

2 oz. Galena. 

1 oz. Lead Acetate. 

4 oz. Lead Oxide (red). 

4 oz. Lead Monoxide. 



107 

Yi oz. Litmus (best cubes). 
12 in. Magnesium Ribbon. 

4 oz. Magnesium Sulphate. 

1 lb. Manganese Dioxide (powdered). 

4 oz. Mercury. 
y 2 oz. Mercuric Chloride. 
3/2 oz. Mercuric Oxide. 
12 in. Platinum Wire. 
y 2 oz. Phosphorus. 
1-8 oz. Potassium (metallic). 
y 2 lb. Potassium Bichromate. 

1 oz. Potassium Bromide. 

2 oz. Potassium Carbonate. 
y 2 lb. Potassium Chlorate. 

1 oz. Potassium Chromate. 
]/ 2 oz. Potassium Cyanide. 

2 oz. Potassium Ferricyanide. 
2 oz. Potassium Ferricyanide. 

Beakers, nest of 4 (3 to 12 oz.) 
Blow Pipe, plain, 8 inch. 
Bottles, W. M., two 8 oz. 
Bottles, N. M., two 8 oz. 
Corks, 1 dozen, assorted. 
Crucibles, Hessian, nest, large 5s. 
Deflagrating Spoon, iron, 1-2 inch. 
Dish, Evaporating, 3 1-2 oz. 
Dish, Lead, 3 inch. 
File, Triangular, 4 inch. 
Filter Paper, 1 pkg., 4 inch. 
Flask, F. B., 4 oz. 
Flask, F. B., 8 oz. 
Flask, F. B., 16 oz. 
Funnel. 2 1-2 inch. 
Funnel, 3 1-2 inch. 
Gas Bag with stopcock, 1 gallon. 
Gas Generating Flask, 1 pint. 
Glass Tubing, 1-2 lb., 3-16 to 1-4. 



108 

Graduate, conical, 60 c. c. 

Hand Balance, 5 inch beam with weight, in case. 

Jar, Specie, for deflagration, 1-2 gallon. 

Lamp, Alcohol, 4 oz. 

Mortar, Wedgwood, 3 inch. 

Pipette, long bulb, large. 

Pneumatic, Trough, Student's. 

Retort, glass, plain, 4 oz. 

Restort Stand, 3 ring. 

Rubber Tubing, 6 feet, 3-16 inch. 

Sand Bath, 4 inch. 

Test Tubes, 1 dozen, 6 by 5-8. 

Test Tube Brush, sponge end. 

Test Tube Holder, wire. 

Thistle Tube. 

U Tube, 6 inch. 

Watch Glass, 2 1-2 inch. 

Wire Gauze, 4 by 4. 



109 



AGRICULTURE. 



By PROFESSOR L. N. DUNCAN. 

Reasons for Teaching Agriculture in the High Schools. 

1. The movement to have agriculture taught in our high 
school course is one of the results of the general tendency of 
all education at present to be practical or industrial. For a 
long time we have had well-rounded courses in text books 
and laboratories looking to the preparation of men for teach- 
ing, medicine, law and the ministry. These courses were vo- 
cational in that they sought to prepare the student for the suc- 
cessful practice of his chosen profession. So in like manner 
we believe that a man who is thoroughly familiar with the 
underlying principles and sciences on which agriculture is 
based combined with the art of farming, will be a better 
farmer. 

2. The 1900 Census Report shows that of the 20,685,42? 
acres of farm lands in Alabama only 8,654,991 acres are im- 
proved and under cultivation. However, on this 8,654,991 
acres of improved land the farmers of Alabama are producing 
in live stock, vegetables and farm crops a total of $109,429,5;:: 
annually. There are still 12,030, 436 acres of farm land un- 
improved. If these unimproved lands are developed so 
that they will produce farm values at the same rate 
as the improved land a total of $150, 380,450 will be added an- 
nually to the income of the farmers of Alabama. In develop- 
ing these unimproved lands and getting the most out of 
what Nature has given us, it is important that we direct 
our educational efforts along those lines which will better en- 
able the farmers to intelligently improve this great resource of 
our State. In bringing this large area to a higher state of civ- 
ilization, timber will have to be removed, roads made, thou- 
sands of homes and outbuildings will have to be built and large 
problems of terracing and drainage will have to be dealt with. 

It should be the purpose and business of our schools to 
give definite training along all of the above lines so that the 



110 

citizen of the country will be as intelligent and as skillful 
about his business, as comfortable and as little exposed to un- 
sanitary conditions as the man of the city. This training 
should also be of such a nature as will enable the farmer to 
get as large a profit as possible from the energy expended. 

3. Another question of grave moment in Alabama is to 
get the farmers to use better methods of farming on the lands 
under cultivation. All of the farmers need definite instruc- 
tion in the fundamental principles of seed selection, soil and 
soil manipulation, fertilization and fertilizers, rotation of 
crops, live stock and the handling and marketing of farm pro- 
ducts. 

The present system of making cotton the main and in a 
majority of cases the only crop is causing the farmer to pur- 
chase his meats, corn, hay and other supplies which he might 
produce. With the methods used it is also leading to vast 
loss from soil depletion. As a result of this one crop system 
the average production of cotton in Alabama is 160 pounds of 
lint per acre and 13.5 bushels of corn per acre. 

-1. Another important reason why our schools should be 
directed so as to improve conditions in the country, is the fact 
that more than 88 persons of every 100 in Alabama live on 
the farm and that 67.6 per cent of the people engaged in gain- 
ful occupations are farming. 

5. It is admitted by all that the present tendency of the 
young men to leave the farms for the town and cities and to 
seek other callings than farming for their professions, un- 
balances the proportion of rural and urban population and is 
dangerous to the welfare of the State. If agriculture is prop- 
erly taught in our high school course so that the pupil will be 
familiar with the underlying principles of agriculture and so 
that farming may be looked upon as a dignified, profitable 
profession, it will largely help to overcome this movement of 
people from the country to the cities. At least two boys out 
of every five should remain on the farm to feed the other 
three who move to town. 



Ill 

Special Note to Teachers. 

I am aware of the fact that a great many teachers hesitate 
to undertake to teach the subject of agriculture to a class of 
students some of whom at least come from the farm, fearing 
that the pupils may know more of some phases of the work 
than the instructor does and also fearing that the child's par- 
ents may criticise the teaching of a subject by one who has 
never practiced it. There was a time when the farmer looked 
upon all efforts at teaching agriculture in the schools as "book 
farming" and thought it was of no value. As a result, how- 
ever, of the work of the various farmers' organizations, the 
farmers' institutes, the work of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, the State Department of Agriculture, the Col- 
lege of Agriculture and the other movements for better farm- 
ing, the farmer is now more willing than ever before to have 
agriculture a part of the school course and it will not be long 
until this will be demanded on the part of the larmer. 

The teacher should realize that there are certain funda- 
mental principles of agriculture, as of all other subjects, which 
have been reduced to teachable form and which may be learn- 
ed and taught by any teacher. As a matter of fact there are 
few teachers who are skilled in the practice of most of the 
subjects taught in the school course. I have heard teachers 
successfully and effectively teach the subject of physiology 
who had never dissected a human body or even seen one dis- 
sected. 

What we really wish to accomplish in the high school 
course in agriculture is to make the pupils thoroughly familiar 
with the basic principles of the subject and then to extend 
these principles by making the best use possible of laboratory 
exercises and the experiences of the pupils who come to the 
class from the farms. If the teacher would enter upon this 
subject with a desire to learn and a spirit of investigation, 
confidence would be gained as progress is made and great 
results accomplished. Every effort should be made by the 
teacher to make liberal use of the illustrative material at hand 
and to draw out by questions and written essays the valuable 



112 

experiences of the boys and girlss who come to the school 
from the farms in the community. The leading community 
interest should be the main subject for discussion in the school 
and the pupils should be encouraged to have garden plots at 
their homes where they may apply to every day practice the 
principles learned in the schools. 

In all of this work, however, the important fact must not be 
overlooked that the main purpose of all of our schools is not 
merely to give facts but to train and discipline boys and girls 
so that when they become men and women they may be cap- 
able of meeting the responsibilities and duties of citizenship 
and of life. A careful study of and a close contact with the 
soil, the living plants and animals, the insects, the trees, the 
flowers and the large problems of farming should be a part 
of the fundamental training of all of our boys and girls re- 
gardless of their ultimate profession. 

The agricultural course for the high school is planned to 
cover the following important branches of the work : 

First Year. This is a general course in elementary agri- 
culture covering all of the great phases of agricultural work. 
This should be very thoroughly and carefully done as it lays 
the foundation for future study along the various special lines 
in the higher grades. 

Second Year. The work this year embraces a special study 
of farm crops or agronomy. 

Third Year. The work for this year is to be divided be- 
tween the two important branches, animal husbandry and hor- 
ticulture. 

Fourth Year. The work this year is to be a special study 
of soils and fertilizers. 

It will be noticed that I have suggested school garden work 
in each grade. I mean simply that each of the high schools 
should maintain at all times of the year the very best school 
garden possible and this school garden should be the nucleus 
for practiccally all of the agricultural work where possible. 

The Alabama Polytechnic Institute is now preparing a small 
leaflet on school garden work which will be readv for use for 



113 

the coming session. This pamphlet is especially adapted to 
the crops and conditions in Alabama. 

The school garden work is not to be a class room subject 
but is to be the laboratory phase and in all cases it should be 
the endeavor of the teacher to have something in the school 
garden to illustrate the lesson in the text, and when this is the 
case the class should meet in the school garden if it is conven- 
ient and not in the school room. 

First Year. 

In this course it is contemplated that physical geography is 
to run from the beginning of the session, three hours per week, 
until the last of February. It is thought that this subject can 
be finished be this time. 

Beginning March first, agriculture is to be taught three 
hours per week through the three spring months, March, April 
and May. The text book recommended for this course is 
Agriculture for Southern Schools, by Professor J. F. Duggar, 
published by the Macmillan Company. This is an elementary 
book which is also adopted for use in the common schools. Its 
use in the high school should be as a review course. The 
pupils should be made thoroughly familiar with the funda- 
mental principals of the plant, the soil, the fertilizing materials, 
the farm crops, the flowers, the forest and fruit trees, the dis- 
eases of plants, the insects, the farm live stock, the feeding 
of live stock and dairying. 

In the high school where the teacher has more time for the 
work, it will be possible to make greater use of the large num- 
ber of experiments and practical exercises suggested with 
nearly every chapter of this book. The pupils should be en- 
couraged and assisted in every way in carrying these out. 
Greater opportunity is also offered here than in the common 
schools, where time is more limited, for making collections 
of plants, flowers, seeds and for more extended out-door work 
with the plant and objects themselves. 

In addition to this review course the following bulletins and 
pamphlets, suggested by Professor Duggar, should be used as 
collateral reading by the teachers : 

8 E 



114 

Laboratory Exercises. Bulletin No. 186, office of Expt. Sta. 

Reprint No. 382, from Yearbook, U. S. D. A. (1905). 

Germination and Propagation. Farmers' Bulletin Nos. 253 
and 157. 

Plant Breeding. Farmers' Bulletin No. 446. 

Drainage. Farmers' Bulletin No. 187. 

Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 192. 

Leguminous Plants. Farmers' Bulletin No. 278. 

Corn. Farmers' Bulletin Nos. 81, 199. 

Cotton. Farmers' Bulletin No. 217. 

*Crimson Clover. Ala. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 
147. 

Forestry. Farmers' Bulletin Nos. 134, 173, 358. 

Flowers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 195. 

Fruits. Farmers' Bulletin No. 154. 

Vegetables. Farmers' Bulletin No. 255. 

Poultry. Farmers' Bulletin Nos. 51, 287. 

Live Stock. Farmers' Bulletin No. 106. 

Bees. Farmers' Bulletin No. 59. 

All of these bulletins can be obtained free from the United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. except 
the one marked * (Crimson Clover) which can be had from 
the Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. 

Second Year. 

One hour per week during the entire year is to be given 
to the study of agriculture. The work this year should be a 
study of the leading farm and staple crops of Alabama. As a 
text for this work a book on Southern Field Crops, which is 
now being prepared by Professor Duggar, of Auburn, is sug- 
gested. This book will be published and ready for use in 
time for the opening of the session this coming fall. Accord- 
ing to an account given me by Professor Duggar, this book 
embraces a careful and accurate study of the important Ala- 
bama crops, oats, wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice, cotton, sugar 
cane, tobacco, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cowpeas and broom 
corn. Two series of exercises are given with each crop, one 



115 

adapted to use for high school students and the other for col- 
lege students. 

Let me urge that the teacher make every use possible of 
the plants themselves in this work. Visit near-by fields of 
the crop which is being studied if possible and if this is im- 
possible have the pupils to bring in specimen plants. Have a 
regular note book for each pupil in which are kept all notes 
and observations. Request the pupils to read the lesson over 
and discuss it with their parents. This will connect the work 
with the home life and will help to get the co-operation of the 
parents. 

Third Year. 

Two hours per week are to be devoted to agriculture for 
the entire year. This time is to be divided between the sub- 
jects of animal husbandry and horticulture, giving eighteen 
or more recitation periods for animal husbandry and the re- 
mainder of the time to horticulture. 

For the first part of the year the work will be animal hus- 
bandry. This work is to be a series of short, concise lec- 
tures on the place of live stock on the Alabama farm, the 
leading breeds of horses, cattle, sheep and hogs. As a text 
for this work. Professor D. T. Gray, of the Department of 
Animal Husbandry in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, is 
preparing a leaflet. This leaflet will endeavor to make the 
pupils familiar with the leading breeds of horses, giving a brief 
history of the breeds, type of the animal and what it is espe- 
cially suited for. A similar series of lectures on cattle is given. 
A brief history of the leading breeds and the characteristic 
markings of each breed and the leading points of difference be- 
tween the dairy and beef types is set forth. 

In like manner the study of the leading breeds of sheep and 
swine is taken up. This leaflet will be well illustrated with 
photographs of typical animals of the various breeds. It will 
also have drawings showing the different parts of the animal 
bodv, the location and value of the cuts of beef, pork, etc. 



116 

Score cards are given of the beef and dairy types and of swine 
and sheep. After the animals have been carefully studied ac- 
cording to the lectures given, the pupils should be required to 
judge several animals according to these score cards. 

In the work in animal husbandry, nearby farms may be 
visited where animals may be found to observe and judge. 
There is scarcely a community in the State where it is not 
possible to find typical horses, hogs, sheep and cows for the 
pupils to study. Excursions should be made frequently to 
such farms and the text work well illustrated and carefully 
explained with the animal before the pupils. 

For the horticultural work during the latter part of the 
year, GofPs Symposium of Horticulture is recommended as a 
text. This is a beginner's book on horticulture and is a se- 
ries of elementary lectures on the subject, delivered by Pro- 
fessor Goff to students in the lower horticulture classes in the 
University of Wisconsin. It covers the various phases of 
seed testing, grafting, budding, pruning, transplanting and 
re-potting of plants. It also touches on the simple principles 
of the cold frame, the hot bed and the green house. 

With a few pieces of lumber and a little work on the part 
of the teacher and pupils a cold frame may be constructed. In 
this work the pupil not only learns how to construct a cold 
frame but numerous vegetables may be grown in it in the win- 
ter and early spring months. In this way the cold frame may be 
made most interesting and instructive to the class in horticul- 
ture. Last February I saw a cold frame in connection with a 
school and in it were growing onions, radishes, head lettuce, 
cabbage and strawberries. During cold nights and days a 
piece of ordinary sheeting was spread over the cold frame for 
protection. 

Fourth Year 

Two hours per week for the second half of this year should 
be devoted to the study of agricultural chemistry. The best 
text for this work is Snyder's Chemistry of Soils and Ferti- 
lizers. This book treats somewhat in detail but in simple Ian- 



117 

guage of the formation and classification of soils, the chemical 
composition of soils, the physical properties of soils, the pro- 
cess of nitrification, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, the 
sources of the fertilizing elements and the process of com- 
pounding them into fertilizer mixtures, rotation of crops, soil 
conservation and the methods of handling the soils. 

It is possible in connection with this work to make excur- 
sions to near-by fields and hill sides and to note, in the washes 
and places of erosion, the process of soil formation and trans- 
portation. With little or no cost, apparatus may be devised for 
carrying out a number of the exercises outlined in the back of 
the text. By adapting the apparatus in the physical and chemi- 
cal laboratories these exercises may be much extended. Nu- 
merous problems may be solved in connection with fertilizers. 
The pupils should be requested to bring questions and problems 
about fertilizers from their homes. These should be solved 
and explained in the class. This will be another means of in- 
teresting the farmers and securing their co-operation. 



118 



LATIN 

By DR. W. B. SAFFOLD. 

In my opinion the Latin course in the high school should be 
so conducted as to produce the following results : 

1. A working vocabulary of not less than 1,500 or 2,000 
words. 

2. A thorough knowledge of the regular inflections and 
such irregular inflections as are of frequent occurrence. 

3. An accurate knowledge of the principal rules of syntax. 

4. Some facility in turning English sentences into Latin. 

5. The ability to pronounce Latin according to the Roman 
Method. 

6. The ability to "scan" dactylic hexameter. 

7. The ability to translate with the aid of the dictionary 
practically any passage in Nepos, Caesar, Cicero (orations and 
easier essays), Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti, and Tristia), and 
Vergil; and to translate at sight with a fair amount of accu- 
racy easy passages in the same authors. 

Vocabulary. — It is patent that the last qualifications includes 
all the others. To get the necessary results here more atten- 
tion must be paid to the acquisition of a vocabulary and slight 
translation than has heretofore been the general practice. 
During the first year the pupil should be required to learn the 
words in each day lesson, and when he has completed the 
beginner's book he should know practically every word in it. 
Systematic efforts to increase the vocabulary should be made 
throughout the course, and at the end of the fourth year he 
should know the meanings of about 2,000 words. (If the 
school year has 160 periods this can be accomplished at a 
rate of only three words a day.) 

It is the common practice of teachers to discontinue all spe- 
cial effort in this direction, as soon as the beginner's book has 
been completed, under the assumption that the pupil will with- 
out further direction gradually strengthen his vocabulary. 



119 

This is a fallacy. To prove that it is, allow your class to pro- 
ceed a few days without direction and then examine them. The 
acquisition of a vocabulary is a drudgery for teacher and pu- 
pil, but it is drudgery that yields great returns. The boy 
who knows the words of the beginner's book will not find 
it necessary to look up practically every word when he comes 
to read Caesar, and the boy who is constantly adding to his 
vocabulary while he is ireading Caesar will be spared an enor- 
mous amount of thumbing the dictionary later on. It is my 
belief that the lack of a vocabulary does more to discourage 
and dishearten pupils than all other causes combined. 

Sight translation. The great benefit to be derived from 
practice in translating at sight is that thereby pupils are com- 
pelled to use correct methods, since the work is done under 
the teacher's eye. Practice in this then should begin early in 
the first year, and should be continued throughout the course 
with such frequency and regularity as will influence the pu- 
pil's method of preparing his set lessons. A book that has 
been edited for sight translation is not necessary. The regular 
edition of the author in use at the time will do, if the teacher 
will take care to select easy narrative passages and give the 
meaning of the words that the pupil could not be expected to 
know. When suitable passages can be found in the lessons of 
the next day it is well to use them, since the interest of the class 
is thus won. Every examination paper, even those of the 
first year, should contain a passage to be translated at sight, 
the class being notified, of course, at the beginning of the term 
that this will be done. In this way the temptation to use a 
translation will be lessened, for pupils will not be slow to real- 
ize that a "crib" is a hindrance rather than a help in preparing 
for such a test. Success here depends almost entirely upon 
the teacher. No other part of the Latin course makes so great 
a demand on his skill and patience, and nowhere else do the 
unaided efforts of the pupil count for so little. 

Lodge's Vocabulary of High School Latin (Teacher's Col- 
lege, Columbia University) will be helpful to teachers in theii 
attempts to increase the pupil's vocabulary and power to trans- 
late at sight. 



120 

Forms. During the first year as much time should be given 
to a mastery of forms as to the acquisition of a vocabulary, 
and before the end of the second year the pupil should have a 
thorough knowledge of all regular inflections and all common 
irregular forms. The teacher who would have his class ac- 
complish this must demand oral as well as written work and 
must exercise his ingenuity in devising different methods of 
attack. In addition to having the paradigms recited or writ- 
ten as a whole, let him give number, person, mood, tense, case, 
etc., and ask for the Latin equivalent. Then, reversing the 
process, let him give the Latin form and ask where it is found. 
Variety can also be secured by occasionally calling upon the 
class to recite the forms in concert, and by having them correct 
each other's black-board work. 

It is inadvisable to attempt to teach beginners the inflections 
by having them build the various forms out of the stems, case- 
endings, etc., e. g. caput from capit, servus from servo, for to 
do this serves only to confuse them. It is much better to have 
them learn only those forms which they will actually meet in 
their lessons. Give short lessons at first and spend a few min- 
utes each day in reviewing. Subordinate everything else to 
thoroughness, for it will save time in the end. I am well aware 
that memorizing forms is tedious. However, there is no escap- 
ing it, for nothing but hard work and constant repetition is of 
any real value. Nor can it be postponed, since the future suc- 
cess of most pupils depends upon the work of the first year. 

Syntax. There has been in recent years a wholesome re- 
action against that exaltation of syntax which made the read- 
ing lesson little more than an exercise in parsing. Inasmuch 
as it is not ignorance of syntax but the lack of a vocabulary 
and ignorance of forms which delay the pupil's progress, only 
so much drill in constructions should be required as is abso- 
lutely necessary to intellect reading, the less common phenom- 
ena being reserved for the college years. And these funda- 
mental principles should be taught in connection with their 
practical application to the reading lesson rather than as ab- 
stractions. There is no greater waste of the pupil's time and 
energy than the common practice of requiring him to mem- 



121 

orize the rules of the grammar before they have been illus- 
trated by examples. I do not advocate lax methods of teach- 
ing syntax. Far from it. The constructions that are neces- 
sary should be thoroughly taught. I think that constant prac- 
tice in turning English sentences into Latin offers the best 
means of doing this. 

Teachers who wish to know what constructions should be 
learned during the various years of the high school course 
will receive real assistance from "The Syntax of High School 
Latin," edited by Lee Byrne and published by the University 
of Chicago Press. This book consists of statistics and select- 
ed examples arranged under grammatical headings and in or- 
der of occurrence by fifty collaborators. 

Writing Latin. Drill in turning English sentences into 
Latin is an excellent means of teaching forms, word order and 
syntax, especially syntax, since pupils understand construc- 
tions most readily when they are seen from the English point 
of view. Consequently it should begin early in the first year 
and extend throughout the course. It should include also oral 
as well as written work, since the former makes it impossible 
for pupils to copy the needed forms from the grammar or from 
each other, which is frequently done when written work alone 
is relied on. Oral work has the added advantage that it ef- 
fects a saving of time, since written work is of necessity a 
slower process. In the written as well as the oral exercises it 
is better to use short sentences. Furthermore, inasmuch as 
many Latin composition manuals are poorly made, especially 
those in which the exercises are based on the text of some 
Latin author, it is incumbent on the teacher to look through 
each lesson in advance in order that he may give needed as- 
sistance on points which his class cannot be expected to know. 

Pronunciation. Nothing more should be attempted here 
than such proficiency as will enable teacher and pupil to under- 
stand each other. The sounds of the letters which should be 
learned from the teacher's lips, and the rules for syllabication 
and accent should be thoroughly mastered. The study 
of quantities, however, can be safely restricted to final syllables 
and vowels before a single consonant in penultimate syllables. 



122 

To require high school pupils to work all the quantities in 
the exercises is worse than useless. As for hidden quantities, 
these, like the minutiae of syntax, should be reserved for col- 
lege years. 

Prosody. The ability to 'scan' the dactylic hexameter is es- 
sential to the full appreciation of Vergil and Ovid. And by 
scanning I do not mean the mechanical division of words into 
feet with a monotonous fall of the voice at the end of each 
verse. Such reading is worse than none at all. If the teach- 
er understands the art of metrical reading it will not be very 
difficult for his class to learn it from him. Teachers who de- 
sire a more detailed treatment of the dactylic hexameter than 
than contained in the school grammars will find it in John- 
ston's Metrical Licenses of Vergil (Scott Foresman & Co.) 
and Richardson's Helps to the Reading of Classical Latin Po- 
etry, (Ginn & Co.) 

General 

It is imperative that from the very beginning good English 
be insisted upon in every sentence that is translated, since it 
is a matter of the greatest difficulty to correct careless and 
slovenly habits of translating when once they have been form- 
ed. Eternal vigilance on the part of the teacher, therefore, is 
necessary in order to check the tendency, displayed by most pu- 
pils, to use under all circumstances the meaning of the Latin 
word which they learned first, to translate by the English 
word which most nearly resembles the Latin, and to proceed 
generally in the line of least resistance. It is, of course, diffi- 
cult to prevent this, since the pupil's alternative is given up 
almost entirely to getting the meaning of the passage. Never- 
theless, neglect here subjects teachers of Latin to well deserved 
criticism. 

Caesar is much too difficult to follow immediately after the 
beginner's book. If then, we are to prevent wholesale deser- 
tions from the Latin classes at the beginning of the second 
year, easier Latin than that of the Gallic Wars must be read 
during the first three or four months of this year. Such Latin 



123 

can be found in Viri Romae, Gradatim, Eutropius, simplified 
editions of Caesar, Nepos, etc. Of these Viri Romae is, a'xf 
things considered, the best. The fact that the Latin is not 
classical is unimportant. If circumstances compel the teacher 
to put his class in Caesar without giving them this preliminary- 
work, he should for several weeks assign short lessons, give 
assistance on the lesson of the next day, omit the more diffi- 
cult passages, and hold frequent reviews. However, the in- 
terest of the average class cannot be held if Caesar is read for 
an entire year. It is much better, therefore, to give at least 
three months to other reading, preferably to one of the books 
mentioned above. Time which appears to be lost when this is 
done will be regained before the end of the year. 

It is equally difficult to keep pupils interested while six ora- 
tions of Cicero and six books of Vergil are being read. It is, 
therefore, advisable that an equivalent amount of Cicero's Let- 
ters and Ovid's Metamorphoses be substituted for two ora- 
tions of Cicero and two books of Vergil respectively. The 
six (or four) orations should be selected from the following; 
those against Catiline, for the Manilian Law, for Archias, 
and for Marcellus ; while Aeneid III and IV should be omitted 
by classes that read only four books of Vergil. 

It is strongly to be recommended that an interest be aroused 
on the part of the class in the personality of the author that is 
being read at the time. In the case of Caesar and Cicero espe- 
cially there is much to tell that will interest even young pupils. 
A great deal can be done to relieve the traditional dullness of 
the ordinary Latin recitation if the teacher will in occasional 
and informal talks tell his pupils about such matters as the 
following : the geography of Gaul, the manners and customs 
of the Gauls, the army, weapons, etc., of the Romans, the fair- 
ness of Cicero's arguments, social and political conditions in 
Rome at the outbreak of Catiline's conspiracy, the Forum and 
the other public buildings at Rome, the decline of the Republic 
and its causes, Vergil's debt to Homer, Vergil's influence on 
later literatures, etc. 



124 



FRENCH AND GERMAN 



By PROFESSOR J. J. DOSTER. 

The value of modern language in secondary education is 
thus stated by the Committee of Twelve : "Aside from the 
general disciplinary value common to linguistic and literary 
studies, the study of French and German in the secondary 
schools is profitable in three ways: First, as an introduction 
to the life and literature of France and Germany ; secondly, 
as a preparation for intelectual pursuits that require the abil- 
ity to read French and German for information ; thirdly, as the 
foundation of an accomplishment that may become useful in 
business and travel. * * * 

What we have called the general disciplinary value of lin- 
guistic and literary study is well understood the world over, 
and has long been recognized in the educational arrangements 
of every civilized nation. The study of a language other than 
the other tongue requires the learner to compare and discrimi- 
nate, thus training the analytic and reflection faculties. The 
effort to express himself in unfamiliar idiom, to translate from 
it into his own, makes him attentive to the meaning of words, 
gives a new insight into the possible resources of expression, 
and cultivates precision of thought and statement. Incidental- 
ly the memory is strengthened and the power of steady appli- 
cation developed. In time such study opens the gate to a new 
literature, thus liberalizing' the mind and giving an ampler 
outlook upon life. Through literature the student is made a 
partaker in the intellectual of other times and other people. 
He becomes familiar with their manners and customs, their 
ideals and institutions, their mistakes and failures, and with 
the artistic forms in which the national genius has expressed 
itself. When he leaves school such knowledge not only en- 
riches his personal life, but makes him more useful, because a 
more intelligent member of society. It exerts a steadying, 
sanative influence, for it furnishes him standards based upon 



125 

the best performance of the race everywhere. For us Ameri- 
cans, with out large confidence in our ways and destiny, there 
is special need for the wisdom that comes from familiarity with 
the life, literature, and history of the great makers of Euro- 
pean civilization." 

Teachers will find many helpful suggestions in the Report of 
the Committee of Twelve, published by D. C. Heath and Com- 
pany, Boston, (The outlines given below are from this re- 
port) ; The teaching of German in secondary schools by Bag- 
ster-Collins, (McMillan Co., New Kork) ; and from the fol- 
lowing pamphlets which are furnished free by the University 
of Alabama : Brownell's French in the Schools of Alabama ; 
and Foster's German in the Schools of Alabama. 

German 

German. Five periods per week during first and second 
years. 

Aim of the Instruction 

At the end of the two years course in German the pupil 
should be able to read at sight, and to translate, if called upon, 
by way of proving his ability to read, a passage of very easy 
dialogue or narrative prose, help being given upon unusual 
words or constructions ; to put into German short English sen- 
tences taken from the language of every day life or based upon 
the text given for translation, and to answer questions upon 
rudiments of the grammar as defined below. 

Work to be Done 

During the first year the work should comprise : ( 1 ) Care- 
ful drill upon punctuation; (2) the memorizing and frequent 
repetition of easy colloquial sentences; (3) drill upon the rudi- 
ments of grammar, that it upon the inflections of the articles, 
of such nouns as belong to every day life, of adjectives, pro- 
nouns, weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs, also upon 



126 

the use of the more common prepositions, the simple uses of 
the model auxiliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and 
word order; (4) abundant easy exercises designed not only 
to fix in mind the forms and principles of grammar, but also 
to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of 
expression; (5) the reading of from 75 to 100 pages of grad- 
uated texts from a reader, with constant practice in translating 
into German easy variations upon sentences selected from the 
reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and in the re- 
production from memory of sentences previously read. 

During the second year the work should comprise : (1) The 
reading of from 150 to 200 pages of literature in the form of 
easy stories and plays; (2) accompanying practice, as before, 
in the translation of German of easy variation upon the mat- 
ter read, and also in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes oral- 
ly and sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and 
easy selected passages; (3) continued drill upon the rudiments 
of the grammar, directed to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, 
to use his knowledge with facility in the formation of sen- 
tences, and, secondly, to state his knowledge correctly in the 
technical language of grammar. 

French 

French, — Five times per week during the Third and Fourth 
years. 

Aim of the Instruction 

At the end of two years course the pupil should be able to 
pronounce French accurately, to read at sight easy French 
prose, to put into French simple English sentences taken from 
the language of every day life, or based upon a portion of the 
French text read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of 
the grammar as defined below. 



127 
The Work to be Done 

During the first year the work should comprise: (1) Care- 
ful drill in pronunciation; (2) the rudiments of grammar, in- 
cluding the inflection of the regular and the more common ir- 
regular verbs, the plural of nouns, the inflection of adjectives, 
participles and pronouns, the use of personal pronouns, com- 
mon adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions ; the order of 
words in the sentence, and the elementary rules of syntax; (3) 
abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the mem- 
ory the forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate 
readiness in the natural forms of expression; (4) the reading 
of form 100 to 175 pages of graduated texts, with constant 
practice in translating into French easy variations of the sen- 
tences read (the teacher giving the English), and in reproduc- 
ing from memory sentences previously read; (5) writing 
French from dictation. 

During the second year the work should comprise : ( 1 ) 
The reading of from 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose in 
the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical 
sketches; (2) constant practice, as in the previous year, in 
translating into French easy variations upon texts read; (3) 
frequent abstracts, sometimes oral and sometimes written, of 
portions of the texts already read; (4) writing French from 
dictation; (5) continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, 
with constant application in the construction of sentences; (6) 
mastery of the forms and use of pronouns, pronominal ad- 
jectives, of all but the rare irregular verb forms, and of the 
simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive. 



12S 



DRAWING 



By PROFESSOR J. J. DOSTER. 



First Year 

Geometrical Drawing. — Two periods per week during First 
year. 

The difficulty that most students encounter in beginning 
plane geometry or in attempting to solve problems in algebra 
is due to their inability to interpret in a concrete way the ab- 
stract statements of the theorem or the problem. The power 
to visualise in them is lacking and needs to be developed. Ge- 
ometrical drawing, if properly taught, is an effective means of 
developing this power, and through it the approach to geome- 
try and algebra can be made easy and exceedingly interesting 
even to the average student. 

In teaching geometrical drawing but little equipment is nec- 
essary. The teacher should provide himself with a pair of 
dividers, which can be procured from any firm dealing in 
school supplies, with which to construct figures on the boards ; 
and he should also have convenient several meter or yard 
sticks, and a large right-angle triangle, which any carpenter 
can make of wood. Each student should have a protractor, a 
small pair of dividers, a right-angle triangle and a short rule, 
all of which can be had in a wooden case for 40 cents from 
Ginn & Co., Atlanta. 

In teaching this subject great stress should be placed 
on neatness and accuracy in the construction of figures, and 
each pupil should be taught to rely upon himself in the solu- 
tion of the various problems. Occasionally the pupils may be 
required to solve by the means of lines easy problems in alge- 
bra and arithmetic. 



129 
Second Year 

Mechanical Drawing. — Two periods per week during Sec- 
ond Year. 

Linear drawing may be substituted for mechanical drawing 
in schools where conditions do not warrant the purchasing of 
equipment for teaching the latter. If linear drawing is offered 
the text book work should be supplemented by various prob- 
lems in construction taken from geometry ; and in this way 
preparation can be made for what is usually to the average 
student a difficult part of plane geometry. The same equip- 
ment can be used in this as in geometrical drawing. 

Mechanical drawing demands better, and consequently some- 
what more expensive, equipment than is necessary for geomet- 
rical drawing. Each student must have a drawing board, T- 
square, 30-60 degree triangle, 45 degree triangle, and a set 
of drawing instruments. A combination set of drawing board, 
T-square, and two triangles can be bought for 50 cents from 
Milton Bradley, Atlanta, Eugene Dietzen Co., New Orleans ; 
Keuffel and Esser, New York; Sears Roebuck and Co., Chic- 
ago, are firms which deal in drawing supplies. From them 
sets of instruments may be had, costing from $1.50 up. 

In schools where mechanical drawing is offered, it is ex- 
pected that the special teacher will outline the course and adapt 
the work to meet the needs of the students. It is intended that 
this course shall be taught in connection with manual training. 

For suggestion as to the necessary equipment of a depart- 
ment of manual training and drawing, write to Prof. V. P. 
McKinley, Department of Manual Arts, State Normal Col- 
lege, Troy, Ala. 

*Manual Training 

A special syllabus will be prepared for those schools which 
desire to establish a department of manual training. The syl- 
labus will include an outline of the courses to be offered, a de- 



*The short topics on Manual Training. Commercial Geography. 
Commercial Arithmetic, Book-keeping and Commercial Law \vere 
written by Professor J. J. Doster. 



9 E 



130 

tailed statement of the necessary equipment, an estimate of 
the cost of same, and an estimate of the running expenses of 
the department. 

Home Economics 

Home Economics is a subject that is just now making its 
way into the schools. Its function is primarily to prepare girls 
for the duties of home-keeping just as the function of manual 
training is to introduce boys to the industrial side of life. Spe- 
cial teachers will be needed to handle this subject. 

*Commercial Geography 

Commercial Geography. — Five periods per week during 
First year. 

This subject will be taken instead of a foreign language 
by students who elect the Commercial Course. Teachers 
should require class to make a collection of as many raw ar- 
ticles of commerce as possible and arrange these so as to show 
localities from which they come. This collection might form 
the nucleus of a school museum. 

*Commercial Arithmetic 

Commercial Arithmetic. — Five periods per week during sec- 
ond year. 

This course is designed to prepare the boy for a place in the 
office or counting room, and only those who have already mas- 
tered the fundamental operations and principles of arithmetic 
are prepared to take it. Commercial arithmetic is a drill in 
the processes and principles or arithmetic in order to make the 
pupil rapid and accurate in this application. Rapidity and 
accuracy are the ends to be attained, and the teacher should 
strive diligently until these are secured. 



*The short topics on Manual Training, Commercial Geography, 
Commercial Arithmetic. Book-keeping and Commercial Law were 
written by Professor J. J. Doster. 



131 

It is not intended that commercial arithmetic should take the 
place of the ordinary arithmetic, but rather it is to supplement 
the latter by stressing certain processes in which speed and 
accuracy are called for. 

^Bookkeeping and Commercial Law 

Book-keeping. — Five periods per week during the Third and 
Fourth years. 

The course in book-keeping extends over the Third and 
Fourth years. During the second half of the Fourth year at 
least two periods each week should be devoted to commercial 
law. 

Teachers are strongly urged to make this work as practical 
as possible. Some time during the course farm book-keeping 
should receive attention. It is hardly necessary to say that no 
teacher, unless he had had some business training, should at- 
tempt to teach these subjects. 



*The short topics on Manual Training, Commercial Geography, 
Commercial Arithmetic, Book-keeping and Commercial Law were 
written by Professor J. J. Doster. 



132 



A Suggestive Course of Study for Grades from 
One to Seven Inclusive 



First Grade 

The Arnold Primer. 

Stepping Stones, First Reader. 

Baldwin's First Reader. 

Spelling: Words Taken from the Reader. 

Drawing Paper. 

Nature Study. 

Language — Oral Work. 

Tablet and pencil. 

Number Work. No book required. 

Copy Book No. 1. 

Second Grade 

Stepping Stones, Second Reader. 

Baldwin's Second Reader. 

Eaton's Speller. 

VanAmburgh's First Days in Number. 

Nature Study. 

Alabama Copy Book No. 2. 

Language Work, Oral and Written. 

Drawing Nos. 1 and 2. 

Tablet and pencil. 

Third Grade 

Baldwin's Third Reader. 
Stepping Stones, Third Reader. 
Home Geography, Tarr and McMurry. 
Eaton's Speller. 



133 

Elementary Arithmetic — Colaw, Duke and Powers. 
Arnold's Language Lessons with Pen and Pencil. 
Alabama Copy Book No. 3. 

History: Stories of great men told by teacher and repro- 
duced by pupils. 

Drawing Nos. 3 and 4. 
Tablet and pencil. 



Fourth Grade 

Baldwin's Fourth Reader. 
Stepping Stones, Fourth Reader. 
Eaton's Speller. 
Modern English, Book I. 
Frye's First Course in Geography. 
Elementary Arithmetic — Colaw, Duke and Powers. 
History : Stories of ancient lands told by teacher and re- 
produced by pupils. 

Alabama Copy Book No. 4. 
Drawing Nos. 5 and 6. 



Fifth Grade 

Baldwin's Fifth Reader. 

Stepping Stones, Fifth Reader. 

Eaton's Speller, completed, and Striplin's Spelling Blanks. 

Modern English, Book I. completed. 

Krohn's Physiology and Hygiene, Book I. 

Practical Arithmetic, Colaw, Duke and Powers. 

U. S. History — Makers of American History. 

Frye's First Course in Geography, completed. 

Brook's Mental Arithmetic. 

Alabama Copy Book No. 5. 

Drawing No. 7. 



134 
Sixth Grade 

Baldwin's Sixth Reader. 

Stepping Stones, Sixth Grade. 

Reed's Word Lessons, and Striplin's Spelling Blanks. 

Modern English, Book II. 

Frye's Higher Geography. 

Holding's Real Things in Nature. 

Thompson's U. S. History. 

Practical Arithmetic, Colaw, Duke and Powers. 

Brooks' Mental Arithmetic. 

Alabama Copy Book No. 6. 

Drawing No. 8. 

Seventh Grade 

Practical Arithmetic, completed. 

Thompson's U. S. History, completed. 

DuBose's History of Alabama. 

Reed's Word Lessons, completed, and Striplin's Spelling' 
Blanks. 

Modern English, Book II., completed. 

Krohn's Physiology, Book II. 

Frye's Higher Geography, completed. 

Agriculture for Southern Schools, Duggar. 

How We Are Governed in Alabama and the Nation, by Mc- 
Bain and Hill. 

Alabama Copy Book No. 7. 

i 
This course of study articulates with the course adopted for 
the county high schools. It is highly important that teachers 
in common schools adopt this course and follow it faithfully 
so that provision may be made for admitting students to the 
high schools without examination after they complete the work 
in the seven lower grades. 

The public schools vary so greatly in length of term it was 
deemed unwise to indicate any specific amount of work for 



135 

•completion in a given book during a term. The several grades 
are provided with work covering not less than eight or nine 
months. 

The books referred to must be used before the selection by 
the teachers of supplementary books of corresponding kind. 

Pupils above the third grade should each provide themselves 
with a Webster's Dictionary, either the Primary, Common 
School or Academic. 

Singing may be taught by grades, in schools of several 
teachers, or by assembling all pupils in schools of one or two 
teachers. 

In teaching the subject of writing the adopted copy books 
must be used in every grade in which writing is taught. 

The position assigned to the subject of Alabama History is 
tentative. The author and publisher insist upon its adaptation 
to the 5th or 6th grade. The book, at this writing, has not 
come from the press. Whatever the grading may be for which 
the book is fitted, the right sequence would seem to be, to have 
this subject matter preceded immediately by the text on United 
States History, allowing one and a half years for Thompson's 
History of the United States, and one-half year for Alabama 
History. 

If the subject of algebra should be attempted in the common 
schools, teachers must remember that Milne's High School Al- 
gebra and Stone-Millis's First Algebra are the adopted text 
"books. 

If the subject of English Grammar is pursued beyond the 
three books placed in the foregoing grades, teachers will note 
that Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English is the 
adopted book. 



ARRANGEMENT OF TOPICS. 



Prefatory Note 3 

Rules and Regulations 6 

Course of Study and Text Books 10 

English IS 

History 34 

Mathematics 45 

Physical Geography 50 

Biology 62 

(a) Botany ' 62 

(b) Zoology 62 

Physics 90 

Chemistry 98 

Agriculture 109 

Latin 118 

German and French 124 

Drawing 128 

Manual Training 129 

Home Economics 130 

Commercial Geography 130 

Commercial Arithmetic 130 

Bookkeeping 131 

Elementary Course of Study 132 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS £ 

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